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Good day dear students! Welcome to another year of a fun learning. You are now almost halfway of your dream of becoming a good teacher. There is always time of hardships, which you think of turning back, but you should always remember that roses start to grow with thorns and its bloom will later be known at its perfect time. Endure the struggle, because after all, it is you whom benefits the fruit of your patience and sacrifices. This module equips you to become more advance in learning literature. The more you’re expose, the more learning you may extract from it. There are times that you might be bored of reading texts, but always remember, you may also have time to rest, and do things that you wanted to. When you’re tired, just have some pauses, but never stop, because stopping is never growing and I don’t want you to be stagnant of your potentials. Carefully learn the lenses on how to analyze a certain literature because it will lead you to a way better and reliable literary analysis. Africa and Asia are one of the power houses of all continents in terms of literature. Both continents brought influence to people worldwide, because its literature is not just merely for fun, but generally carries life’s teaching. Read the literary texts not because you have tasks to complete, but because you have something to gain from it. It is very fulfilling that you’re learning while finishing the work tasks than turning at the end page without even gaining something but just completing it. Before you open the very first page of its academic page, condition your mind first that you have to make it for worth, and divert the difficult contents to something positive. If you found it hard, search for answers; if it made you even confused, ask for somebody to enlighten you, because it is better to ask help than to drive off wrong interpretations.
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Students Follow these guidelines upon completing your work tasks. A. B.
Activities for literary analysis will be submitted through a soft copy of the word document (Microsoft word) only. Follow the following guidelines below: 1.1 For the front page and table of contents, copy this format. FRONT COVER Font- Times new Roman Sizes-36,20,15(Synchronized) Worksheet size: Letter
INSIDE PAGES Font- Times new Roman Title Size-15 Content Size- 11 Worksheet size: Letter C. D. E. F.
Make your content layout simple and clean (no background colors, icons and other unnecessary texts). Save your file with this filename, DELA CRUZ, JUAN-ENGLISH 15 Send your activities on my gmail, [emailprotected] For some instructions, add yourself on our FACEBOOK group page, ENG. 15, ACP(SC) or ENG. 15, DAILY(SC). These group pages are intended for morning, afternoon and evening sessions. G. For concerns and some queries about academic purposes, contact me on my separate account on facebook, JASON LOVITOS. You will not be entertained if you chat me on my private account (JASON REDIDO LOVITOS). H. Other activities will be done on your modules and will be submitted in handwritten form.
https://web.facebook.com/jason.lovitos.3 5
[emailprotected]
nter rubric title Enter rubric description
Introduction
EXCELLENT 20
VERY GOOD 17
FAIR 10
POOR 4
Excellent
Very Good
Fair
Poor
-Begins with a hook -Introduces the author and title fluidly Thesis statement is clear, thoughtful Organization/Topic Sentences
Thesis/Concept
Body paragraphs
Conclusion
Spelling and grammar
-Author and title mentioned, but not clearly stated -Thesis statement present, but not strong
-Missing author and title -Thesis statement unclear
Very Good
Fair
Poor
The essay's organization supports the thesis and remains focused with insightful discussion. Topic sentences are clear and connected to the thesis. Makes use of transitions to provide a natural flow to the essay.
Essay is organized into sub-topics that explore the work and support the thesis.
Organization is unclear or loses focus from the play and/or thesis.
Essay is not organized into sub-topics that focus on one aspect of the play.
Excellent
Very Good
Fair
Poor
Thesis is clear and strongly supported with concrete details and commentary on the story throughout the essay. Body paragraphs each contain specific details from the story that tie into the topic sentence.
The thesis is somewhat clear and somewhat supported with concrete details and commentary related to the story.
Thesis is unclear and unsupported. Discussion shows little understanding of the text. Body paragraphs do not contain concrete details drawn directly from the story.
Excellent
Very Good
Fair
Essay contains at least three in-text citations (paraphrases/quotes) that offer support for the thesis and are creatively introduced.
Body paragraphs contain at least three in-text citations (paraphrases/quotes) that clearly support the thesis.
Contains fewer than three pieces of text evidence OR evidence does not support thesis.
Excellent
Very Good
Fair
Poor
All body paragraphs contain a topic, explanation, evidence, analysis, and is related to the thesis
Most body paragraphs contain a topic, explanation, evidence, analysis, and is related to the thesis
Some body paragraphs contain a topic, explanation, evidence, analysis, and is related to the thesis
Few, if any, body paragraphs contain a topic, explanation, evidence, analysis, and is related to the thesis
Excellent
Very Good
Fair
Poor
Wraps up the essay by restating the thesis, reviewing the main points briefly, and leaving the reader thinking. The conclusion is creative and/or thoughtful.
Restates the thesis and main points briefly, and leaves the reader with something to think about.
Excellent
Very Good
No errors in spelling and grammar throughout the essay.
Literary Text:Literary Text:
-Introduces author -Introduces title -Thesis statement is clear
Excellent
Thesis is clear and well developed. Main points are introduced clearly. Thesis is supported throughout with concrete details and appropriate commentary. Body paragraphs contain concrete details from the story that support the thesis. Text evidence
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Very few errors in spelling and grammar.
Conclusion restates the thesis, but not the main points.
Fair Multiple errors in spelling and grammar show little effort in editing and proofreading.
Poor No text evidence provided in form of quotes or examples.
Does not restate thesis and main points. Conclusion missing.
Poor Many spelling and grammatical errors detract significantly from the essay.
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a. b. c. d. e.
Define literature in own words Differentiate prose from poetry Differentiate fiction from non-fiction Recognize importance of literature in the life of people Make a literary analysis base on their own interpretation of the text read
In this chapter, you will learn the definition, origin and the scope of literature, its classification, features and the different examples of each literature that are widely used by people today and in the past centuries.
Literature is a body of written works. The name has traditionally been applied to those imaginative works of poetry and prose distinguished by the intentions of their authors and the perceived aesthetic excellence of their execution. Literature may be classified according to a variety of systems, including language, national origin, historical period, genre, and subject matter. Its Latin root literatura/litteratura (derived itself from littera: letter or handwriting) was used to refer to all written accounts. The concept has changed meaning over time to include texts that are spoken or sung (oral literature), and non-written verbal art forms. Developments in print technology have allowed an ever-growing distribution and proliferation of written works, culminating in electronic literature. https://www.britannica.com/art/literature
Survey of Afro -Asian Literature |5 All types of written works are considered as literature, except those texts without having a high level of artistic merit. Everyone is entitled to craft a literary text which draws out to one’s imaginative interpretations and observations. There are two general classifications of literature in terms of purpose and content.
• Prose is an ordinary writing that flows regular grammatical conventions and does not contain a formal metrical structure. • It begins with sentences to paragraphs.
The following are some of the most common types of prose in literature that are commonly used and seen in these times.
NOVEL Is an invented prose narrative of considerable length and a certain complexity that deals imaginatively with human experience, usually through a connected sequence of events involving a group of persons in a specific setting. Novel is composed of an average wordcount in between 60,000 and 90,000 for most genres, but numbers may vary depending on the type of genre.
NOVELETTE Is an extended prose narrative story or short novel. It is longer than a short story and shorter than a novel. It is regarded as being slight, trivial, or sentimental. Its word count is between 7,500 to 17, 499 words.
SHORT STORY Is a brief fictional prose narrative that is shorter than a novel and that usually deals with only a few characters.
Survey of Afro -Asian Literature |6 Word counts of a short story is much flexible depending on style the artistic style of the writer, some used to write it in 2, 412 words, but generally most are in 7,500 words. The word limit guarantees readers to continually read the text by single sitting only. It is simple and less complex than a novel.
BIOGRAPHY Is another form of literature, commonly considered nonfictional, the subject of which is the life of an individual written by someone else. One of the oldest forms of literary expression, it seeks to re-create in words the life of a human being—as understood from the historical or personal perspective of the author—by drawing upon all available evidence, including that retained in memory as well as written, oral, and pictorial material.
AUTOBIOGRAPHY It is an account of a person's life written or otherwise recorded personally by himself. Chapters in biographies are usually around 6-8,000 words in length but there are no hard and fast rules with it. It is just a bird’s eye view in case one will read or make such; it just usually follows the person’s life event and significant bio.
ESSAY It is a short piece of writing on a particular subject, often expressing personal views. In a school test, an essay is a written answer that includes information and discussion, usually to test how smart the student comprehends the subject. Word lengths depend upon the person who writes on how he expresses his viewpoint on a particular subject matter
• Expression of feelings and ideas is given intensity by the use of distinctive style and rhythm. • It is divided up into lines, stanzas; it often follows a repeating measure and has rhythm and harmony.
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THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF POEMS Below is a list of some of the most common types of poetry, their main characteristics, and famous examples of each.
SONNET Sonnets are practically synonymous with Shakespeare, but there are actually two different kinds of this famous poetic form. Having originated in 13th century Italy, the sonnet usually deals with love and has two common forms: the Petrarchan (named for its famous practitioner, the poet Petrarch) and the Shakespearean (also known as the English sonnet). Each type contains 14 lines but comes with its own set of rules.
Petrarchan Sonnet Characteristics and Rules: •
2 stanzas
•
Presents an argument, observation, or question in the first 8 lines
•
Turn (or “volta”) between 8th and 9th lines
•
Second stanza answers the question or issue posed in the first
•
Rhyme Scheme: ABBA, ABBA, CDECDE
Shakespearean Sonnet •
3 quatrains (4 lines each) and a couplet (2 lines)
•
Couplet usually forms a conclusion
•
Rhyme scheme: ABAB, CDCD, EFEF, GG
ELEGY The elegy is another type of poem that lacks particular rules, but it usually is written in mourning following a death. They can be written for a particular person, or treat the subject of loss more generally.
BALLAD Ballads usually take a narrative form to tell us stories. They are often arranged in quatrains, but the form is loose enough that writers can easily modify it. Ballad Characteristics and Rules
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• Typically arranged in groups of 4 lines • Rhyme scheme: ABAB or ABCB
VILLANELLE Villanelles have even more specific rules than sonnets. Luckily, many of the lines are repetitions, but this means you’ll have to take care to make those lines meaningful. Characteristics and Rules •
19 lines
•
5 stanzas of 3 lines each
•
1 closing stanza of 4 lines
•
Rhyme scheme: ABA, ABA, ABA, ABA, ABA, ABAA
•
Line 1 repeats in lines 6, 12, and 18
•
Line 3 repeats in lines 9, 15, and 19
HAIKU You might remember writing a few of these back in grade school, because not only are these poems short, but they can be very fun to write. The haiku originated in 17th century Japan. Although they usually refer to nature, the only real rule applies to the number of syllables in each line, so you can let your imagination run wild with this one. Characteristics and Rules •
3 lines
•
Line 1 contains 5 syllables
•
Line 2 contains 7 syllables
•
Line 3 contains 5 syllables
ODE Odes address a specific person, thing, or event. The ode is believed to have been invented by the ancient Greeks, who would sing their odes. Modern odes follow an irregular pattern and are not required to rhyme.
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FREE VERSE Free verse is exactly what its name implies. There are no rules, and writers can do whatever they choose: to rhyme or not, to establish any rhythm. Free verse is often used in contemporary poetry.
A type of book or story that is written about imaginary characters and events and does not describe real people or deal with facts, or a false report or statement that you pretend is true Is writing that gives information or describes real events, rather than telling a story.
Fiction refers to literature created from the imagination. Mysteries, science fiction, romance, fantasy, chick lit, crime thrillers are all fiction genres. Whether or not all of these genres should be considered “literature” is a matter of opinion. Some of these fiction genres are taught in literature classrooms and some are not usually taught, considered more to be reading for entertainment. Works often taught in literature classrooms are referred to as “literary fiction” including classics by Dickens, Austen, Twain, and Poe, for example.
Like fiction, non-fiction also has a sub-genre called “literary nonfiction” that refers to literature based on fact but written in creative way, making it as enjoyable to read as fiction. Of course there are MANY other types of nonfiction such as cook books, fitness articles, crafting manuals, etc. which are not “literature,” meaning not the types of works we would study in a literature classroom. However, you may not be aware of the many types of nonfiction we would study, such as biography, memoir or autobiography, essays, speeches, and humor. Of these literary nonfiction genres, they can be long like a book or series of books or short like an essay or journal entry. Some examples of these you are already familiar with, like The Diary of Anne Frank or Angela’s Ashes by Frank McCourt. These works of literary nonfiction have character, setting, plot, conflict, figurative language, and theme just like literary fiction.
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Answer the following questions/concepts below. Each question merits five points.
1. What makes something a literature? _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________
2. Differentiate prose from poetry. _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________
3. Differentiate fiction from non-fiction. _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________
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4. How did literature make an overwhelming effect to people’s lives today? _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________
5. What do you think is the very reason that people make a literary piece? _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________
6. If you make one literary text, what type would it be? What makes you choose that and what topic or theme will best fit it? Why? _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________
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Direction: Search for any literature in Asia or Africa and paste it on the space provided below. Make a literary analysis base on your own interpretation out of the text you read. (50 points)
(Paste your literary text here! You may fold the hard copy or just write it on here!)
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a. Determine the easiest and hardest approach in literary criticism b. Search for similarities with other approaches c. Recognize the reliability of the approaches through providing indicators and guidelines
In this chapter, you will be introduced to the different types of approaches on how to respond and do a critical literary analysis. Also, you will learn how text is being judged accordingly with the help of the said lenses.
The following are the common and helpful lenses on how to respond a literary text.
FORMALIST CRITICISM This approach regards literature as “a unique form of human knowledge that needs to be examined on its own terms.” All the elements necessary for understanding the work are contained within the work itself. Of particular interest to the formalist critic are the elements of form—style, structure, tone, imagery, etc.—that are found within the text. A primary goal for formalist critics is to determine how such elements work together with the text’s content to shape its effects upon readers.
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BIOGRAPHICAL CRITICISM This approach “begins with the simple but central insight that literature is written by actual people and that understanding an author’s life can help readers more thoroughly comprehend the work.” Hence, it often affords a practical method by which readers can better understand a text. However, a biographical critic must be careful not to take the biographical facts of a writer’s life too far in criticizing the works of that writer: the biographical critic “focuses on explicating the literary work by using the insight provided by knowledge of the author’s life. Biographical data should amplify the meaning of the text, not drown it out with irrelevant material.”
HISTORICAL CRITICISM This approach “seeks to understand a literary work by investigating the social, cultural, and intellectual context that produced it—a context that necessarily includes the artist’s biography and milieu.” A key goal for historical critics is to understand the effect of a literary work upon its original readers
GENDER CRITICISM This approach “examines how sexual identity influences the creation and reception of literary works.” Originally an offshoot of feminist movements, gender criticism today includes a number of approaches, including the so-called “masculinist” approach recently advocated by poet Robert Bly. The bulk of gender criticism, however, is feminist and takes as a central precept that the patriarchal attitudes that have dominated western thought have resulted, consciously or unconsciously, in literature “full of unexamined ‘male-produced’ assumptions.” Feminist criticism attempts to correct this imbalance by analyzing and combatting such attitudes—by questioning, for example, why none of the characters in Shakespeare’s play Othello ever challenge the right of a husband to murder a wife accused of adultery. Other goals of feminist critics include “analyzing how sexual identity influences the reader of a text” and “examining how the images of men and women in imaginative literature reflect or reject the social forces that have historically kept the sexes from achieving total equality.”
PSYCHOLOGICAL CRITICISM: This approach reflects the effect that modern psychology has had upon both literature and literary criticism. Fundamental figures in psychological criticism include Sigmund Freud, whose “psychoanalytic theories changed our notions of human behavior by exploring new or controversial areas like wish-fulfillment, sexuality, the unconscious, and repression” as well as expanding our understanding of how “language and symbols operate by demonstrating their ability to reflect unconscious fears or desires”; and Carl Jung, whose
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 15 theories about the unconscious are also a key foundation of Mythological Criticism. Psychological criticism has a number of approaches, but in general, it usually employs one (or more) of three approaches: 1. 2. 3.
An investigation of “the creative process of the artist: what is the nature of literary genius and how does it relate to normal mental functions?” The psychological study of a particular artist, usually noting how an author’s biographical circumstances affect or influence their motivations and/or behavior. The analysis of fictional characters using the language and methods of psychology.
SOCIOLOGICAL CRITICISM This approach “examines literature in the cultural, economic and political context in which it is written or received,” exploring the relationships between the artist and society. Sometimes it examines the artist’s society to better understand the author’s literary works; other times, it may examine the representation of such societal elements within the literature itself. One influential type of sociological criticism is Marxist criticism, which focuses on the economic and political elements of art, often emphasizing the ideological content of literature; because Marxist criticism often argues that all art is political, either challenging or endorsing (by silence) the status quo, it is frequently evaluative and judgmental, a tendency that “can lead to reductive judgment, as when Soviet critics rated Jack London better than William Faulkner, Ernest Hemingway, Edith Wharton, and Henry James, because he illustrated the principles of class struggle more clearly.” Nonetheless, Marxist criticism “can illuminate political and economic dimensions of literature other approaches overlook.”
MYTHOLOGICAL CRITICISM This approach emphasizes “the recurrent universal patterns underlying most literary works.” Combining the insights from anthropology, psychology, history, and comparative religion, mythological criticism “explores the artist’s common humanity by tracing how the individual imagination uses myths and symbols common to different cultures and epochs.” One key concept in mythological criticism is the archetype, “a symbol, character, situation, or image that evokes a deep universal response,” which entered literary criticism from Swiss psychologist Carl Jung. According to Jung, all individuals share a “‘collective unconscious,’ a set of primal memories common to the human race, existing below each person’s conscious mind”—often deriving from primordial phenomena such as the sun, moon, fire, night, and blood, archetypes according to Jung “trigger the collective unconscious.” Another critic, Northrop Frye, defined archetypes in a more limited way as “a symbol, usually an image, which recurs often enough in literature to be recognizable as an element of one’s literary experience as a whole.”
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 16 Regardless of the definition of archetype they use, mythological critics tend to view literary works in the broader context of works sharing a similar pattern.
READER-RESPONSE CRITICISM This approach takes as a fundamental tenet that “literature” exists not as an artifact upon a printed page but as a transaction between the physical text and the mind of a reader. It attempts “to describe what happens in the reader’s mind while interpreting a text” and reflects that reading, like writing, is a creative process. According to reader-response critics, literary texts do not “contain” a meaning; meanings derive only from the act of individual readings. Hence, two different readers may derive completely different interpretations of the same literary text; likewise, a reader who re-reads a work years later may find the work shockingly different. Reader-response criticism, then, emphasizes how “religious, cultural, and social values affect readings; it also overlaps with gender criticism in exploring how men and women read the same text with different assumptions.” Though this approach rejects the notion that a single “correct” reading exists for a literary work, it does not consider all readings permissible: “Each text creates limits to its possible interpretations.”
DECONSTRUCTIONIST CRITICISM This approach “rejects the traditional assumption that language can accurately represent reality.” Deconstructionist critics regard language as a fundamentally unstable medium—the words “tree” or “dog,” for instance, undoubtedly conjure up different mental images for different people—and therefore, because literature is made up of words, literature possesses no fixed, single meaning. According to critic Paul de Man, deconstructionists insist on “the impossibility of making the actual expression coincide with what has to be expressed, of making the actual signs [i.e., words] coincide with what is signified.” As a result, deconstructionist critics tend to emphasize not what is being said but how language is used in a text. The methods of this approach tend to resemble those of formalist criticism, but whereas formalists’ primary goal is to locate unity within a text, “how the diverse elements of a text cohere into meaning,” deconstructionists try to show how the text “deconstructs,” “how it can be broken down ... into mutually irreconcilable positions.” Other goals of deconstructionists include: (1) challenging the notion of authors’ “ownership” of texts they create (and their ability to control the meaning of their texts); (2) focusing on how language is used to achieve power, as when they try to understand how some interpretations of a literary work come to be regarded as “truth.
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MORAL-PHILOSOPHICAL APPROACH
4. Post Modern Moral Criticism asks how the work in question affects the reader. This is technically what is called Neo-Humanist--an American philosophy that evaluates morality. Critics working from a moral bent are not unaware of form, figurative language and other purely aesthetic considerations, but they consider them to be secondary. The most important thing is the moral philosophy teaching in the larger sense, all great literature teaches. Ascertaining and stating WHAT is taught. The larger function of literature is to teach morality and to probe philosophical issues questions to consider when approaching a text with Moral Criticism (or Neo-Humanism or Christian Humanism) 3. What moral lesson or ethical teaching is the author presenting in the text/or through character, plot, or theme? According to critic Paul Elmer More in his work "Criticism":"It is the critic’s duty, to determine the moral tendency of literary works and to judge them on that basis...The greatest critics are “discriminators between the false and the true, the deformed and the normal: preachers of harmony and proportion and order, prophets of the religion of taste.” How to do it? 4. How do characters, settings, and plot events represent or allegorize moral or ethical principles? 1.1 Judge the value of the literature on its moral lesson or ethical teaching A. Literature that that is ethically sound and encourages virtue is praised B. Literature that misguides and/or corrupts is condemned 2. 2 Works that are moral (or literature that attempts to teach and instruct as well as entertain) are often seen in contemporary criticism as didactic. 5. Does the work in question pose a pragmatic or moral lesson or philosophical idea? Jean Paul Satre and Albert Camus – existentialism Pope’s Essay on Man – meaning and role of reason in the 18th century thought Religiously-oriented.
Every student needs to know the root, and the very reason why did the author writes the piece, for him to drive off into a right interpretation. It will also help students extract the meaning and the substantial interpretation of the text along through examining the artistic quality of the piece. There is no problem if someone incorporate one approach with another if it will surely help him/her comes up to a more credible and quality literary analysis. Before you analyze a text, you must first understand the approach you are using
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Discuss the following questions/concepts below. Each question merits five points. 1. What do you think is the easiest approach in criticizing a literary text? Why? _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________
2. Which of the different literary approaches you find difficult to use? Why? _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________
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3. Give two approaches that closely shared common qualities, basis and standards on how to criticize a work of literature. On the other side, state it’s differences; to what extent do they’re distinct to each other. __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________
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4. Do you really think one can make a reliable literary analysis? Why? If yes, what is the best indicator/s that guarantee/s a reliable and good literary analysis? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________
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a. Describe the best qualities and features of Africa. b. Answer questions about the people, country, religion and literature in Africa.
This chapter helps you know the beauty and uniqueness of Africa in general perspective. Also, this will introduce you the different countries that comprise in this continent, its people, spoken languages, shared educational system and their most widely used religion.
AFRICA Is the second largest continent (after Asia), covering about one-fifth of the total land surface of Earth. The continent is bounded on the west by the Atlantic Ocean, on the north by the Mediterranean Sea, on the east by the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean, and on the south by the mingling waters of the Atlantic and Indian oceans.
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 22 .
Africa’s total land area is approximately 11,724,000 square miles (30,365,000 square km), and the continent measures about 5,000 miles (8,000 km) from north to south and about 4,600 miles (7,400 km) from east to west. Its northern extremity is Al-Ghīrān Point, near Al-Abyaḍ Point (Cape Blanc), Tunisia; its southern extremity is Cape Agulhas, South Africa; its farthest point east is Xaafuun (Hafun) Point, near Cape Gwardafuy (Guardafui), Somalia; and its western extremity is Almadi Point (Pointe des Almadies), on Cape Verde (Cap Vert), Senegal.
In the northeast, Africa was joined to Asia by the Sinai Peninsula until the construction of the Suez Canal. Paradoxically, the coastline of Africa—18,950 miles (30,500 km) in length—is shorter than that of Europe, because there are few inlets and few large bays or gulfs. Is now one of the most widely practiced religions in Africa along with Islam and is the largest religion in Sub-Saharan Africa. Several syncretistic and messianic sects have formed throughout much of the continent, including the Nazareth Baptist Church in South Africa and the Aladura churches in Nigeria.There is also fairly widespread populations of Seventhday Adventists and Jehovah's Witnesses. The oldest Christian denominations in Africa are the Eastern Orthodox Church of Alexandria, the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, and the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church (which rose to prominence in the fourth century AD after King Ezana the Great made Ethiopia one of the first Christian nations.)
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NAME OF COUNTRIES
Algeria Angola Benin Botswana Burkina Faso Cabo Verde Cameroon Central African Republic (CAR) Chad Comoros Congo, Democratic Republic of the Cote d'Ivoire Djibouti Egypt Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Ethiopia Kenya Lesotho Liberia Libya Lesotho Madagascar
Malawi Mali Mauritania Mauritius Morocco Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda Sao Tome and Principe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa South Sudan Sudan Tanzania Togo Tunisia Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe
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.
Africa is a continent with a very high linguistic diversity, there are an estimated 15002000 African languages. Of these languages four main groupings can be distinguished:
Afro-Asiatic Approximately 200 languages covering nearly Northern Africa (including the horn of Africa, Central Sahara et the top Nile)
Nilo-Saharian Gathering approximately 140 languages with some eleven millions speakers scattered in Central and Eastern Africa.
Niger-Saharian (Niger-Congo) Covering the two third of Africa with as a principal branch the Niger-Congo which gathers more than 1000 languages with some 200 million speakers. The Bantu languages of Central, Southern, and Eastern Africa form a sub-group of the Niger Congo branch.
Khoisan Gathering about thirty languages in Western part of Southern Africa. All African languages are considered official languages of the African Union.
However, in all of Africa — a population of about 1.2 billion — only 6.5 million people speak English as their native language. In total, around 700 million Africans speak English, including those who speak it as a foreign language.
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What qualities and features of African countries you think stand out from any other countries from other continents? Why? _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________
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African literature has origins dating back thousands of years to Ancient Egypt and hieroglyphs, or writing which uses pictures to represent words. These Ancient Egyptian beginnings led to Arabic poetry, which spread during the Arab conquest of Egypt in the seventh century C.E. and through Western Africa in the ninth century C.E. These African and Arabic cultures continued to blend with the European culture and literature to form a unique literary form.
a. Explain and recognize the writer’s genre and most focused topic b. Explain and choose a right piece for a certain approach in literary criticism c. Critique two literary texts with a certain approach in literary criticism
In this chapter, you will learn the stories behind the African literature. You will learn its history and qualities that lies within every piece. Also, you will be introduced to the different outstanding writers and their literary pieces in the different parts of Africa. It includes novels, short stories and poems.
Africa experienced several hardships in its long history which left an impact on the themes of its literature. One hardship which led to many others is that of colonization. Colonization is when people leave their country and settle in another land, often one which is already inhabited. The problem with colonization is when the incoming people exploit the indigenous people and the resources of the inhabited land. Colonization led to slavery. Millions of African people were enslaved and brought to Western countries around the world from the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries. This spreading of African people, largely against their will, is called the African Diaspora. Sub-Saharan Africa developed a written literature during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. This development came as a result of missionaries coming to the area. The missionaries came to Africa to build churches and language schools in order to translate religious texts. This led to Africans writing in both European and indigenous languages. Though African literature's history is as long as it is rich, most of the popular works have come out since 1950, especially the noteworthy Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe. Looking beyond the most recent works is necessary to understand the complete development of this collection of literature. Now let's take a look at some characteristics of African literature.
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1) Written in both African and European languages. The predominant African languages used are Amharic, Zulu, Hausa, and Swahili. 2) Encapsulates different periods in African history, from ancient Africa to the period of Imperialist domination (15th-19th centuries), and from the post-colonialist and reconstruction period (19th-mid-twentieth century) to the post-independent/contemporary period (mid-twentieth century-present). 3) Includes oral and written literature from more than 3,000 ethnic African groups. 4) May be regionally-based, such as West African Literature, North African Literature, South African Literature, or East African Literature. 5) Oral literature comes in varied forms such as myths, folk tales, proverbs, dramas, songs, and folk tales. They often involve stories about the creation of the world and legends about how various powerful dynasties originated in African regions. 6) During the colonization period, written slave narratives documented European atrocities and the horrors of slavery. Nationalist newspapers as well as resistance/liberation poetry critiqued European colonizers and their practices. In the 19th century, various African authors produced works in English criticizing colonialist ambitions and advocating for independence. These authors include Chinua Achebe, Wole Soyinka, and Ngugi wa Thiong'o. 8) During the post-colonialist era, various authors denounced the practice of apartheid.
The 10 Best African Writers
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 28 Professor John Masterson, author of The Disorder of Things: A Foucauldian Approach to the Work of Nuruddin Farah, provides a list of some of the continent’s other rich talents.
Born in Dakar, Senegal, in 1929, Bâ has come to be regarded as one of the most original writers to have emerged from west Africa. Her life and work were preoccupied with issues such as gender relations, power and inequality, as well as the ways in which these were framed and affected by African and Islamic cultural beliefs. In many ways, her own narrative corresponded with a key feminist mantra: “The personal is political.”
Her early struggle for education informed her writing, both fictional and critical. Her first novel, So Long a Letter (1981), uses the raw material of her own life to create a narrative which, owing to its resonance with the experience of other African women, is widely acknowledged as a seminal feminist text. She died before her second novel, Scarlet Song (1986), was published. Since her death, academics and general readers alike have come to appreciate the peculiar power and considerable contribution of Bâ’s writing, as well as her political legacy. While she composed her work in French, it has been translated into many different languages, and is read and studied worldwide.
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Born in Lagos, Nigeria, in 1944, Emecheta’s life and work has, in effect, set the stage for a new generation of west African female writers, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie perhaps the most high profile among them. Like Adichie, much of Emecheta’s fiction is drawn from her diasporic experiences, having been educated in the former colonial centre of London before making a life and home there.
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 29 Emecheta’s early and heavily autobiographical novels, such as in the Ditch (1972) and Second-Class Citizen (1974), are key black British texts, concerned as they are with the struggles of Nigerian women and children to adapt to a home that is foreign in more ways than one. In addition to her work as a novelist, Emecheta is celebrated for her writing for children as well as for a series of critical pieces. Like Chinua Achebe and Adichie, Emecheta has provided a fictional exploration of the Biafran War in Destination Biafra (1982). As with Bâ and Bessie Head, much of Emecheta’s most striking work, from The Slave Girl (1977) to The Joys of Motherhood (1979), is preoccupied with the ways in which writing can function as a mode of resistance within patriarchal and, therefore, often hostile cultures and contexts. As such, a novel like the more recent The New Tribe (1999) supplements her oeuvre in provocative ways. Favourite text:
Born in Pietermaritzburg in 1937, Head passed away in 1986. Since her death, the significance and influence of her life and work has been brought more starkly into focus. She is best known for three novels – When Rain Clouds Gather (1968), Maru (1971) and A Question of Power (1974).
As with the writing of Bâ and Emecheta, Head’s fiction is preoccupied with the issues, struggles and questions that defined her own highly unique narrative. One of her most pressing concerns was the relationship between racial identity and notions of belonging, born as she was to a then “forbidden” union involving a black man and Scottish woman. If much contemporary post-colonial fiction is dominated by themes of hybridity and mixture, often framed in somewhat saccharine ways, Head’s experiences and writing attend to the pain, sometimes even trauma, of being a mixed-race woman within a predominantly patriarchal, racist society.
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But as with Bâ and Emecheta, the hope and beauty of her work comes from the creation of a singular voice driven by her commitment to writing as a form of correcting injustice and offering resistance. Favourite text
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Born in Ziguinchor, southern Senegal, in 1923, Sembène is widely acknowledged as a seminal figure in both African literature and film. As with Bâ, Emecheta, Nuruddin Farah, Head, Ngugi wa Thiong’o and Yvonne Vera, Sembène’s work, on both page and screen, is centrally concerned with the cultural practices and political discourses surrounding the female body in Africa.
Before his death in 2007, Sembène won critical acclaim for Moolaadé (2004), a film that offers an uncompromising exploration of female circumcision. It was a suitably provocative end to a life and career dedicated to the belief that art should play an interrogative, consciousness-raising role. Alongside his scores of films, Sembène is probably best known for his second novel, which translated from its original French into God’s Bits of Wood (1960), as well as Xala, a novella written in 1973 that evolved into a film of the same name. In their distinctive yet equally defiant ways, both texts attack political hypocrisy, whether colonial or neocolonial, while also critiquing the excesses of an often violent patriarchal culture. For readers and viewers on the African continent and beyond, Sembène’s achievements and influence are enormous.
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’ Born in Kamiriithu, Kenya, in 1938, Thiong’o is one of the most celebrated African intellectuals and writers. He has enjoyed international acclaim as a novelist, essayist, playwright, social commentator and activist. The experience of British colonialism and the Mau Mau struggle for independence, as well as Kenya’s position in the neocolonial era preoccupy much of Ngugi’s thought and writing.
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 31 The experience of British colonialism and the Mau Mau struggle for independence, as well as Kenya’s position in the neocolonial era preoccupy much of Ngugi’s thought and writing. He established himself with a series of novels published in the 1960s: Weep Not, Child (1964), The River Between (1965) and A Grain of Wheat (1967). His combination of a distinctive prose style with provocative subject matter would come to define other works now considered canonical texts of African literature.
Include Petals of Blood (1977), the play Ngaahika Ndeenda (I Will Marry When I Want) (1977) and Caitani Mutharabaini (1981), later translated into English as Devil on the Cross (1982). Volumes of essays and reflections, such as Decolonising the Mind (1986), Penpoints, Gunpoints and Dreams (1998), as well as his prison memoir, Detained (1981), have also been influential for generations of readers and scholars alike. In 2004, he published his leviathan Gikuyu-language novel, Murogi wa Kagogo, translated as Wizard of the Crow.
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7
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CHAPTER ONE Okonkwo was well known throughout the nine villages and even beyond. His fame rested on solid personal achievements. As a young man of eighteen he had brought honor to his village by throwing Amalinze the Cat. Amalinze was the great wrestler who for seven years was unbeaten, from Umuofia to Mbaino. He was called the Cat because his back would never touch the earth. It was this man that Okonkwo threw in a fight which the old men agreed was one of the fiercest since the founder of their town engaged a spirit of the wild for seven days and seven nights. The drums beat and the flutes sang and the spectators held their breath. Amalinze was a wily craftsman, but Okonkwo was as slippery as a fish in water. Every nerve and every muscle stood out on their arms, on their backs and their thighs, and one almost heard them stretching to breaking point. In the end, Okonkwo threw the Cat. That was many years ago, twenty years or
the
end,
Okonkwo
threw
the
Cat.
That was many years ago, twenty years or more, and during this time Okonkwo's fame had grown like a bush-fire in the harmattan. He was tall and huge, and his bushy eyebrows and wide nose gave him a very severe look. He breathed heavily, and it was said that, when he slept, his wives and children in their houses could hear him breathe. When he walked, his heels hardly touched the ground and he seemed to walk on springs, as if he was going to pounce on somebody. And he did pounce on people quite often. He had a slight stammer and whenever he was angry and could not get his words out quickly enough, he would use his fists. He had no patience with unsuccessful men. He had had no patience with his father.
Unoka, for that was his father's name, had died ten years ago. In his day he was lazy and improvident and was quite incapable thinking about tomorrow. If any money came his way, and it seldom did, he immediately bought gourds of palm-wine,
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 33 of thinking about tomorrow. If any money came his way, and it seldom did, he immediately bought gourds of palm-wine, called round his neighbors and made merry. He always said that whenever he saw a dead man's mouth he saw the folly of not eating what one had in one's lifetime. Unoka was, of course, a debtor, and he owed every neighbor some money, from a few cowries to quite substantial amounts. He was tall but very thin and had a slight stoop. He wore a haggard and mournful look except when he was drinking or playing on his flute. He was very good on his flute, and his happiest moments were the two or three moons after the harvest when the village musicians brought down their instruments, hung above the fireplace. Unoka would play with them, his face beaming with blessedness and peace. Sometimes another village would ask Unoka's band and their dancing egwugwu to come and stay with them and teach them their tunes. They would go to such hosts for as long as three or four markets, making music and feasting. Unoka loved the good fare and the good fellowship, and he loved this season of the year, when the rains had stopped and the sun rose every morning with dazzling beauty. And it was not too hot either, because the cold and dry harmattan wind was blowing down from the north. Some years the harmattan was very severe and a dense haze hung on the atmosphere. Old men and children would then sit round log fires, warming their bodies. Unoka loved it all, and he loved the first kites that returned with the dry season, and the children who sang songs of welcome to them. He would remember his own childhood, how he had often wandered around looking for a kite sailing leisurely against the blue sky. As soon as he found one he would sing with his whole being, welcoming it back from its long, long journey, and asking it if it had brought home any lengths of cloth.
any
lengths
of
cloth.
That was years ago, when he was young. Unoka, the grown-up, was a failure. He was poor and his wife and children had barely enough to eat. People laughed at him because he was a loafer, and they swore never to lend him any more money because he never paid back. But Unoka was such a man that he always succeeded in borrowing more, and piling up his debts. One day a neighbor called Okoye came in to see him. He was reclining on a mud bed in his hut playing on the flute. He immediately rose and shook hands with Okoye, who then unrolled the goatskin which he carried under his arm, and sat down. Unoka went into an inner room and soon returned with a small wooden disc containing a kola nut, some alligator pepper and a lump of white chalk. "I have kola," he announced when he sat down, and passed the disc over to his guest. "Thank you. He who brings kola brings life. But I think you ought to break it," replied Okoye, passing back the disc. "No, it is for you, I think," and they argued like this for a few moments before Unoka accepted the honor of breaking the kola. Okoye, meanwhile, took the lump of chalk, drew some lines on the floor, and then painted his big toe.
…
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Master was a little crazy; he had spent too many years reading books overseas, talked to himself in his office, did not always return greetings, and had too much hair. Ugwu's aunty said this in a low voice as they walked on the path. "But he is a good man," she added. "And as long as you work well, you will eat well. You will even eat meat every day." She stopped to spit; the saliva left her mouth with a sucking sound and landed on the grass. Ugwu did not believe that anybody, not even this master he was going to live with, ate meat every day. He did not disagree with his aunty, though, because he was too choked with expectation, too busy imagining his new life away from the village. They had been walking for a while now, since they got off the lorry at the motor park, and the afternoon sun burned the back of his neck. But he did not mind. He was prepared to walk hours more in even hotter sun. He had never seen anything like the streets that appeared after they went past the university gates, streets so smooth and tarred that he itched to lay his cheek down on them. He would never be able to describe to his sister Anulika how the bungalows here were painted the color of the sky and sat side by side like polite well-dressed men, how the hedges separating them were trimmed so flat on top that they looked like tables wrapped with leaves.
His aunty walked faster, her slippers making slap-slap sounds that echoed in the silent street. Ugwu wondered if she, too, could feel the coal tar getting hotter underneath, through her thin soles. They went past a sign, ODIM STREET, and Ugwu mouthed street, as he did whenever he saw an English word that was not too long. He smelled something sweet, heady, as they walked into a compound, and was sure it came from the white flowers clustered on the bushes at the entrance. The bushes were shaped like slender hills. The lawn glistened. Butterflies hovered above. "I told Master you will learn everything fast, osiso-osiso," his aunty said. Ugwu nodded attentively although she had already told him this many times, as often as she told him the story of how his good fortune came about: While she was sweeping the corridor in the mathematics department a week ago, she heard Master say that he needed a houseboy to do his cleaning, and she immediately said she could help, speaking before his typist or office messenger could offer to bring someone. "I will learn fast, Aunty," Ugwu said. He was staring at the car in the garage; a strip of metal ran around its blue body like a necklace.
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 35 Master was a little crazy; he had spent too many years reading books overseas, talked to himself in his office, did not always return greetings, and had too much hair. Ugwu's aunty said this in a low voice as they walked on the path. "But he is a good man," she added. "And as long as you work well, you will eat well. You will even eat meat every day." She stopped to spit; the saliva left her mouth with a sucking sound and landed on the grass. Ugwu did not believe that anybody, not even this master he was going to live with, ate meat every day. He did not disagree with his aunty, though, because he was too choked with expectation, too busy imagining his new life away from the village. They had been walking for a while now, since they got off the lorry at the motor park, and the afternoon sun burned the back of his neck. But he did not mind. He was prepared to walk hours more in even hotter sun. He had never seen anything like the streets that appeared after they went past the university gates, streets so smooth and tarred that he itched to lay his cheek down on them. He would never be able to describe to his sister Anulika how the bungalows here were painted the color of the sky and sat side by side like polite well-dressed men, how the hedges separating them were trimmed so flat on top that they looked like tables wrapped with leaves. "Remember, what you will answer whenever he calls you is Yes, sah!" "Yes, sah!" Ugwu repeated. They were standing before the glass door. Ugwu held back from reaching out to touch the cement wall, to see how different it would feel from the mud walls of his mother's hut that still bore the faint patterns of molding fingers. For a brief moment, he wished he were back there now, in his mother's hut, under the dim coolness of the thatch roof; or in his aunty's hut, the only one in the village with a corrugated iron roof.
His aunty tapped on the glass. Ugwu could see the white curtains behind the door. A voice said, in English, "Yes? Come in."
They took off their slippers before walking in. Ugwu had never seen a room so wide. Despite the brown sofas arranged in a semicircle, the side tables between them, the shelves crammed with books, and the center table with a vase of red and white plastic flowers, the room still seemed to have too much space. Master sat in an armchair, wearing a singlet and a pair of shorts. He was not sitting upright but slanted, a book covering his face, as though oblivious that he had just asked people in.
"Good afternoon, sah! This is the child," Ugwu's aunty said. Master looked up. His complexion was very dark, like old bark, and the hair that covered his chest and legs was a lustrous, darker shade. He pulled off his glasses. "The child?"
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Without the Thursday interludes the week is as featureless as a desert. There are days when he does not know what to do with himself. He spends more time in the university library, reading all he can find on the wider Byron circle, adding to notes that already fill two fat files. He enjoys the late-afternoon quiet of the reading room, enjoys the walk home afterwards: the brisk winter air, the damp, gleaming streets. He is returning home one Friday evening, taking the long route through the old college gardens, when he notices one of his students on the path ahead of him. Her name is Melanie Isaacs, from his Romantics course. Not the best student but not the worst either: clever enough, but unengaged. She is dawdling; he soon catches up with her. 'Hello,' he says.
She smiles back, bobbing her head, her smile sly rather than shy. She is small and thin, with close-cropped black hair, wide, almost Chinese cheekbones, large, dark eyes. Her outfits are always striking. Today she wears a maroon miniskirt with a mustard-coloured sweater and black tights; the gold baubles on her belt match the gold balls of her earrings.
of
her
earrings.
He is mildly smitten with her. It is no great matter: barely a term passes when he does not fall for one or other of his charges. Cape Town: a city prodigal of beauty, of beauties. Does she know he has an eye on her? Probably. Women are sensitive to it, to the weight of the desiring gaze. It has been raining; from the pathside runnels comes the soft rush of water. 'My favourite season, my favourite time of day,' he remarks. 'Do you live around here?' 'Across 'Is 'No,
the
Cape I
line.
I
Town grew
up
share
a
flat.'
your
home?'
in
George.'
'I live just nearby. Can I invite you in for a drink?' A pause, cautious. 'OK. But I have to be back by seven-thirty.' From the gardens they pass into the quiet residential pocket where he has lived for the past twelve years, first with Rosalind, then, after the divorce, alone.
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He unlocks the security gate, unlocks the door, ushers the girl in. He switches on lights, takes her bag. There are raindrops on her hair. He stares, frankly ravished. She lowers her eyes, offering the same evasive and perhaps even coquettish little smile as before. In the kitchen he opens a bottle of Meerlust and sets out biscuits and cheese. When he returns she is standing at the bookshelves, head on one side, reading titles. He puts on music: the Mozart clarinet quintet.
'Maybe. But in my experience poetry speaks to you either at first sight or not at all. A flash of revelation and a flash of response. Like lightning. Like falling in love.' Like falling in love. Do the young still fall in love, or is that mechanism obsolete by now, unnecessary, quaint, like steam locomotion? He is out of touch, out of date. Falling in love could have fallen out of fashion and come back again half a dozen times, for all he knows. 'Do you write poetry yourself?' he asks.
Wine, music: a ritual that men and women play out with each other. Nothing wrong with rituals, they were invented to ease the awkward passages. But the girl he has brought home is not just thirty years his junior: she is a student, his student, under his tutelage. No matter what passes between them now, they will have to meet again as teacher and pupil. Is he prepared for that?
'I did when I was at school. I wasn't very good. I haven't got the time now.' 'And passions? Do you have any literary passions?' She frowns at the strange word. 'We did Adrienne Rich and Toni Morrison in my second year. And Alice Walker. I got pretty involved. But I wouldn't call it a passion exactly.'
'Are you enjoying the course?' he asks. 'I liked Blake. I liked the Wonderhorn stuff.' 'Wunderhorn.' 'I'm not so crazy about Wordsworth.'
So: not a creature of passion. In the most roundabout of ways, is she warning him off? 'I am going to throw together some supper,' he says. 'Will you join me? It will be very simple.'
'You shouldn't be saying that to me. Wordsworth has been one of my masters.'
She
It is true. For as long as he can remember, the harmonies of The Prelude have echoed within him.
'OK. But I have to make a phone call first.'
'Maybe by the end of the course I'll appreciate him more. Maybe he'll grow on me.'
'Come
looks on!'
he
dubious. says.
'Say
yes!'
The call takes longer than he expected. From the kitchen he hears murmurings, silences.
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By Nike Champbell-Fatoki
The harsh harmattan wind clawed at my nose and cheeks as I made another attempt to cover my face with the scarf while trying to keep up with brother Fidelis. The flapping sound of his slippers on the dusty road cut into my deep thoughts as we journeyed through the foggy air. He stopped suddenly and turned around to ask if I remembered what he told me. I was not sure what he meant and told him so to which he spat out the remnants of his chewing stick on the ground and lifted his hand to hit me. I ducked, barely missing.
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“Abeg brother!” I knelt down on the dusty road and apologized. “Get up! Are you crazy? Do you want a car to hit you?” He pulled me up just as a rickety Peugeot 504 raced by, blasting its horn. Pointing at the disappearing car engulfed by the fog, he said, “You see now? That stupid driver did not even turn on headlights.” He turned back to me and pulled on his ear. “Your mother thinks you are going for a job interview to get an office job.” I nodded. “Do not make the mistake of telling her anything else.” “Yes brother.” “OK, let’s go.” We walked in silence again, this time, my eyes fixed on his tall frame. Brother Fidelis is my mother’s stepbrother and today, he is taking me to Lagos where he worked as a businessman for as long as I can remember. He lives in Lagos. He’s been living there for almost ten years, and he made an appointment for me to see his business partner. Maybe I will be lucky and get a contract; I need it. My family needs the money. The fog was beginning to clear, and I could see the bus terminal. “You stay here. I will go and get a bus to take us to Oshodi.” He walked past the shiny luxurious buses to the danfo buses painted yellow with black stripes across them like a zebra. It seemed they had all suffered some level of collateral damage from accidents and were missing parts. One had no headlights for its entire bonnet was gone, exposing the engine to the elements. Some had no doors. Some had huge dents and looked fragile sitting on the weight of suspicious tires. Thick smoke gushed from blackened exhaust pipes, and eager commuters waited to get in. “Oshodi straight! Oshodi straight!”
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The gruff voice of this particular bus conductor overshadowed the others. He paused to clear his throat, spat out phlegm, and resumed his announcement. The crowd pushed toward his danfo. I moved closer, my eyes fixed on brother’s back as he haggled with the bus conductor. Bodies pushed against mine. I pushed back. Sweat built up in my arm pits though the harmattan wind continued to suck up any moisture left on my skin. That is when I saw her. “Mariamu? Na you?” I gasped and pulled the scarf tighter around my face. A plump woman in a bubu stretched tautly over her voluptuous body approached. A large bag was perched on her head. I knelt down to greet her. “Good morning Iya Teslim.” She pouted her brightly painted lips when she told me to get up from the ground. “Wetin? You wan pour sand for my garri? My name na Tawa for Lasgidi, abi no be there you dey go?” She asked and glanced at the nylon bag under my arm. I searched for brother. He was still arguing with the conductor, while pulling out his wallet from the back pocket of his trousers. Iya Teslim had a basket mouth; she was infamous for her inability to keep a secret in our small town. To everyone’s relief, she left for Lagos some years ago, but recently resumed her visits at Christmas. She asked if I had a job there. Who was going to look after Mama and my child? Her eyes narrowed when I remained quiet. I pulled my scarf closer around my face and told her I was just going for an appointment. She shook her head sadly. “School cert holder like you; no be you get the highest mark for your class? You for done find job since!” “Last chance! Last chance!” The bus conductor called out. “The bus dey comot!” Iya Teslim shouted and grabbed my hand, pulling me towards the revving vehicle. I reached up and grabbed the bag falling off her head and set it back in balance.
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“Excuse jare! Excuse!” she shouted, using her bottom to push aside the other waiting commuters until she reached the bus conductor. She smiled and pressed her chest into his dirty brown singlet. “Bros,” she said, parting her red lips in a smile. “Tawa, how now?” he grinned. “Time don reach?” She batted her eyes at him. “Yes now. You know say Christmas holiday don finish, I for don return since. You know say I be secretary for big company for Lagos.” He puffed smoke rings from his lips and winked. “I know now. The same company I come meet you for night last month abi?” “Make you sharrap!” She giggled and hit him playfully on the chest. I coughed and covered my nose. The conductor turned to look at me. “Who be this?” He asked. Someone cleared a throat in the front passenger seat. A head turned around. “Let her in!” Brother shouted. The bus conductor’s eyes widened “Oh!” He hit the side of his head and inhaled deeply from his wrap. “Come!” He pointed to me and said, “Make you perch for the back seat there. You hear?” I climbed in and made my way to the back row where he had pointed. I sat between an old man and a girl who looked about my age with a baby on her lap. I lifted my eyes in time to see Iya Teslim rush to the front passenger side of the danfo. “Fidelis! Na you be dat?” She grabbed him by his shirt collar. “I warn you say make you no show face for dis our town again! You wan finish another girl life abi?” She screamed and hit him repeatedly. Brother covered his face with his arms but said nothing. The bus conductor jumped in and hung on the side.
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“Make we go driver!” he shouted and hit the top. The danfo revved and took off. Iya Teslim ran after us. “Conductor you dey leave me? Wetin I do you make you mess me up like dis?” Tawa screamed. We watched from the danfo as she ran after us with her bag, raining curses. Some passengers laughed, waking up others who had fallen asleep. The old man beside me stirred. “We don reach?” he asked. Passengers turned around in their seats and chuckled.
“Papa
you don reach London come back?” The conductor asked. Everyone settled into a comfortable silence as we left our small town behind for the glittering, beckoning lights of Lagos. The baby’s cries woke me up. I tried to shift my leg in the cramped space and felt her weight before looking down in my lap. Her head was in my lap, while the rest of her was in her mother’s limp arms. She sucked angrily on her thumb, her chubby cheeks drenched with tears. I gulped as my hands cradled her head. She reminded me of my baby. Her mother jerked awake when she started crying again. Her sleepy yellow eyes pleaded with me as she picked up her child. “Sorry my sista,” she mumbled. The Christmas music from the radio could barely be heard from where I sat. A large woman in the front row had taken up two seats. She had a large bag in her lap that blocked the view of the people who sat behind her in the bus. Each time the bus hit a pothole, the bag hit the side of the man next to her. We rode on in silence for an hour, interrupted by snores, and snippets of conversations and my rumbling stomach, but no one seemed to notice me. When the driver called the bus conductor’s name fro the front, he patted his trouser pocket, looked up and pointed to the man beside the large woman. “Oga! Oga! Yes, you wey dey look me with koro-koro eye!” “Wetin?” the man asked “You tink say I forget you owe me twenty naira. Oya, bring am!” “I no get bros. I no get,” he said and scratched his bald head. The bus conductor hissed, leaned forward and grabbed his t-shirt. The large woman screamed and pulled her bag to her chest.
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“We don cross into Lagos and you say you no get money! I go push you for road now!” the bus conductor screamed. His yellow eyes flashed. The man rubbed his hands and looked at our faces. “Abeg, somebody help me,” he whimpered and raised his two hands up. The large woman dug into her large bosom and handed the conductor some notes. He released the man and counted the money. “Better thank this woman well-well. You for find yourself for roadside today!” Moved by her act of giving, the man bent his head to thank her, hitting his head on the bag. She responded that he should bring enough money for his transportation next time. The rest of the journey was quiet. In a few hours, the conductor interrupted with shouts of “Oshodi! Oshodi!” He thrust his head and upper torso through the open window as the danfo stopped behind several identical buses. We got out one at a time. When my feet hit the pavement, I saw brother waving at me.
He flagged down a small vehicle with three wheels – we did not have them in our town. We boarded and sat in silence as the driver weaved through streets and bodies who were unafraid of the moving vehicle, horning to pass through. Eventually, the vehicle stopped at the beginning of an unpaved street. The sign said Sumonu Street. We dodged potholes and climbed mini hills as we walked by run down houses. Some of the houses in our town looked better than these, I thought. Women of all shapes, sizes and complexion, all dressed up stood in front of the houses and called out to brother who smiled and waved, reminding me of a king who waved to his subjects. As though he suddenly remembered I was there, he turned around and shouted at me to hurry up. The house was at the end of the street; green moss and fern covered it. A girl about twentyyears-old in skin-tight jeans shorts and a cropped top stood at the front door chewing on a gum. The noise from a generator made it difficult to hear what she said. When we got closer we could hear her – her voice was deep. “Bros, how you dey? Who be dis fine gal?” “I dey. I brought my niece. Can I see madam?”
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Her eyes fell on me. “Ehn! Your own blood. You really serious o!” She moved aside and Brother took my hand and entered the house. It was dark in the hallway. There were at least six closed doors. Brother took me down to the end and knocked on the door. A female voice shouted to come in. The overhead fluorescent light flickered in the room, doing little to illuminate the face of the woman sitting on a chair holding a phone. Behind her was a neatly made bed. A large black night gown hung over the mirror of the dresser pushed against the wall. She smiled widely and threw her arms out. “Fidelis!” she shouted. He chuckled and rushed to hug her. His hands went to her neck and kissed it repeatedly and she responded with giggles and playful slaps on his back. After a few minutes of watching their affectionate display, Brother straightened and looked at me. “This is Mariamu. She fine abi?” The woman’s thick lashes moved up and down. “Take off the scarf on your head,” Brother said. I did, pulling the scarf round my shoulders. “God try small for this one. You say she be your sister daughter?” “Yes now! I lie Mariamu?” “No, he’s my uncle.” She studied me. “You go school?” “Yes. I finished secondary school three years ago.” She nodded.
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“Me too. I finish secondary school, but see me now.” She rearranged her sequined top. “Everybody call me Madam for here. Your uncle tell you wetin we do here?” I nodded. “And you ready?” “She ready o! She has baby and mama she has to take care of,” Brother said. The woman got up and told me to follow her to the room I would be sharing with others. We followed her out to the hallway and down two doors and then knocked. “Who be that?” The voice sounded like the one we had left behind at the bus terminal. “Open door! No be me pay for room?” Madam shouted. It opened immediately. Iya Teslim stood there dressed in the same attire we had seen her that morning. Her mouth fell open. She crossed her arms and pointed at Brother. “So you deceive this poor girl too? You bring her here to finish her life!” Madam raised her hand and struck Iya Teslim’s face. “E be like say the Christmas break for your town make you craze! Who you dey talk to like that? My man?” Iya Teslim knelt on the floor holding her face. “Sorry madam. Sorry.” Madam stepped back, her chest heaving. She turned to me and said. “Go in.” I glanced at brother. He waved me away “Go now!” he shouted impatiently.
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I flung my arms around him, and held on tight. “Fidelis, I thought you said this girl was ready?” Madam asked, surprised. Brother pulled my hands from around his waist. “Mariamu, what? Come on, you’re a big girl, Tawa will show you around.” He pushed me into the room and walked away with Madam. I could hear them chuckling as I pulled my scarf tighter around my shoulders, hiding my arms. Tawa whispered that I should close the door. I did. Two women, fully dressed, with make up still on their faces were sleeping on mats. When she saw me looking at them, she said they worked late the night before. She sat on the only mattress in the room and I followed. We sat in silence for a few seconds, and then I turned to her. “So this your Lagos Iya Teslim?” “So this na your appointment Mariamu,” she said. “Wetin you dey do with this useless Brother Fidelis? I shrugged. “He brought me to work.” She eyed me and hissed. “You know the kind of work we dey do? Abi he lie to you like he lie to me?” “No, he told me what I would be doing.” “And you still come?” I shook my head, and whispered that we go outside. Her eyes narrowed but she agreed. She pointed towards the back of the house and I followed. When we made our way through the overgrown weeds about twenty feet from the house, overlooking the back of the house of the next street, we turned to each other. “Wetin Mariamu? Wetin you dey do here?” she asked, angry. “Iya Teslim, I need your help.”
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“Wetin?” “My boyfriend, Bode, my baby’s father lives in in Isale Eko, and I need to get there tonight, when everyone is asleep.” Her mouth began to widen. “I, I have money,” I said and pulled up my wrapper, exposing my jeans underneath. I pulled out the bundle of naira notes, and a brown wallet – Brother’s. “Mariamu where you get all this?” I stared at her, not sure if to trust this woman. “From the people at the bus terminal, and on the bus I rode.” I had used every brush and bump to my advantage. Bode had taught me well. We had met in school and known earlier on that we were cut from the same mold. He had to steal to put food on the table for his widowed mother and siblings; I did it because I couldn’t help it. I felt compelled to take from others even when I didn’t need to. Bode was the professional. He had helped to hone my craft – spending hours at the markets and bus terminals watching and selecting our victims and at the end of the day return with our spoils. He said my innocent face and petite stature were my greatest assets in this business. Three years ago, after I became pregnant right after our school certificate exam, he decided to move to Lagos to make better money for us. But then I became tired of him telling me to wait to join him. He had moved into the bigger leagues and I wanted to be part of it. Iya Teslim stood, shocked for almost ten seconds after I finished speaking, and then began to laugh, first in little spurts and then harder. The tears streamed down her face. She held her stomach, and grew quiet. The girl at the front entrance earlier ran out to the yard, her eyes questioning. Iya Teslim told her she was fine and waved her away. When she left, Iya Teslim straightened her shoulders and smiled at me. “You be sharrrrp girl!” She patted me hard on the back and took me further back into the yard to discuss.
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Lilian A. Aujo By: Lilian A. Auio You are a boy of ten again. You are on the bus, and the trees seem to be going faster than the bus you are seated in. You are on the Kampala–Masaka Highway. You cannot wait to reach Kampala as it will be your first time there. The excitement darts through your body like grasshoppers jumping from grass blade to grass blade. You keep standing to catch a glimpse of the speeding trees, and then sitting down heavily onto your mother’s lap as if you are falling into a chair padded with cushions. “But Vincent, why don’t you settle down?! You will even break my bones! Now see...” Your mother points down to the heavy lemon green sash of her gomesi. Its tassels are trailing on the bus floor, covered in red soil. You see how you have dirtied my musiipi? You know gomesis are very hard to clean!” You look at her attire covered in bright greens, blues and oranges. Mzee bought it for her last Christmas. It is the newest of all her attires and that is why she has chosen to wear it for the journey to the big city. “Sorry Mama!” You sit on her, as carefully as a butterfly perching on a flower and so that you remember to remain seated you cross your legs. The bus stops at the roadside. A swarm of men balancing baskets of gonja race towards it, covering the bus’ windows. Your mother buys ten fingers for two hundred shillings. They are yellow and, but crusted brown in some places. As your mother hands you one, its aroma fills your nostrils. You open your mouth to sink your teeth into it, but the gonja disappears! You start to ask your mother about it, but stop because she is not there anymore. Yet, you are still on the bus. You touch your chin and it is rough with a beard. You look down at your feet and they have grown so long. Your shorts are gone and you’re wearing trousers.
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 49 Vinnie, Vinnie ...” It’s Chantal’s sweet voice. But she sounds so far off...You let her voice get carried away in the loud swish of the speeding trees...And you still have to find your mother... You follow her through the narrow bus corridor and call out to her but she does not stop. You continue to follow her, until all the faces on the bus meld into a smooth blackness. But her bright gomesi creates a shining path for you and you keep going till you reach her and pull at it. But when turns she is as still as stone and before you hear the villager mourners wail, “Woowe, Woowe”, you know there is not one breath left in her... “Maama, Maama...” Vinnie, Vinnie! Wake up! It’s just a bad dream!” You open your eyes. Chantal is staring down at you. “You were dreaming,” she says. Her voice soothes you. She strokes your ear and says, “Good morning, love?” She heard you whimpering like a puppy in agony. You turn away, you don’t want her to see the fear in your eyes. But she snuggles close to you and you have no choice but to kiss her. She is weak and yielding and you are no longer the scared twelve year old-boy staring at your mother’s lifeless body. The vibration of the telephone under your pillow tears you away from Chantal. Even as you pull away from her you wonder who could be calling you at six in the morning. Early morning calls usually convey very bad news. You wish the superstitious streak in you could be thwarted by reason. But your fingers tremble as you grip the cell phone. Quickly, you glance at the caller ID. It’s your father. At this time of the morning, what could be the matter? “Hello, Mzee?” “Hello Mutabaani, how is Kampala? How is work?” “It is Ok. Is everything at home fine?” It would be Ok. But some things are not so good.” Your heart pounds in your ears. “Has anyone died? Are the twins fine?” It is nothing like that, they are all fine. No one has died.” Your breath comes out in a low whistle and it’s only then you realised that you’ve been holding it in. “It is just that I had to catch you before you went to work, that is why I called so early.” He soundsapologetic and you are too relieved to blame him for giving you a scare. “So what has happened?” “Netaaga obuyambi, mutabani.” Your father’s voice suddenly sounds small. You immediately know it’s about money. If he is asking you, he must have run out of options.
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 50 “Yes Mzee, what kind of help?” Damn! That only sounds like you are waiting for him to beg you for. You wait for him to say something, but the silence between the lines stretches on. “Yes Mzee…” You let your voice trail off like you are waiting for him to complete your thought, but you’re really thinking he will not become less of a father just because he is about to ask you formoney. It works because he finally fills the space. “Nze mbade ngamba...” “Yes Mzee...” “Joel ne Genevieve, badayo kusomeero.” It has to be about that. Your siblings are going back to school. On more than one occasion, you have ‘topped up’ their school fees. Your father does the best he can. But he is a retired primary school teacher and does not have much income. “How much is the balance?” “Millioni taano,” your father says. “Five million!” the shock in your voice rings out loud in your own ears; your father hears it too. “Naanti my son, you know how things have been. The pension has still not yet come. Even if it had, it would not have made much of a difference. And the crop has been bad since last year; this banana wilt destroyed at least three quarters of the plantations.” You shake your head. Five ma? Where are you going to get that much money? Chantal wraps herarms round your waist and puts her soft lips on your cheek in a silent peck. You know your father isup against the wall. Ten years into retirement and his pension is still held up because the social security official said he was not one and the same person – just because his name has two different spellings. You know the banana wilt must be as bad as the Ministry of Agriculture had announced. There was an outbreak in the country, it spread easily and was hard to contain. It has eaten up many plantations in Masaka, Mzee’s being among. But five million! Who is going to give you that much at such short notice? You could take a loan. “When do you need the money?” “By Friday, son. Joel and Genevieve will be reporting on Monday, and they’ll not be allowed to register unless they have paid full tuition.” Today is Monday. You have only four days to get the money together, a loan approval would take more than a week. “Eeh! I wish you had told me earlier.” “Our SACCO was supposed to lend me some money, but I just got the news that they can’t afford to lend so much money to one person when money is so scarce.” The Savings and Credit Cooperative Organisation your father is referring to, is for the matooke plantation owners in Masaka. The credit crunch again. The heavily made-up news anchor on last news talked in detail on how banks and other financial institutions were lax to lend; deposits
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 51 are few, so lending rates are high. You stare at the light filtering in through the chink in the curtains. It’s mocking you. You do not see even a sliver of hope to make this problem go away. “So Mzee, let me see what to do, I will give you a call in one hour.” “Weebale Mutaabani!” “Mzee, do not thank me yet, thank me when I get the money.” Even as you say it, you know there is no hope of you getting that money in four days. You run your fingers over the black metallic rosary beads hanging from your neck. You never take it off. You never know when the Virgin Marymight intercede. “Hail Mary, full of grace...” you mumble under your breath. You extricateyourself from Chantal’s grasp and start to throw off the covers. “Can’t you stay a little longer?” She purrs. “It is six thirty, I don’t want to be late for work.” The words are thrown over your shoulders because you are already fastening your towel round your waist, heading for the bathroom. *** “Musiiru gwe! Wayigira wa okuvuga?” “What about you! Where did you learn how to drive?” You retort. The taxi driver looks at you like he would a stray dog and gears. The jolt of annoyance that has been bubbling in you simmers asyou take in his dishevelled appearance His head looks like a millet field after a ghastly downpour, the guy obviously thinks the existence of combs is a nuisance. His beard looks rough enough toshame Chantal’s pumice stone. His shirt collar edges are frayed upwards, and there are little blackholes sprinkled down its front – ash burns. About two hundred metres away, the traffic policeman’s uniform gleams white in your view. You think of pressing on in the right lane and allowing the taxi guy to fidget in the nonexistent third onetill the traffic guy pulls him over. But you change your mind as you realise the errant driver will notgive up. He has the nose of his mini bus pointing diagonally at the body of your Japanese Premeau;the blasted guy will scratch you if you insist. A long winded argument will ensure on who is right or who is wrong, and the traffic guy will come up and pull both of you over to ‘negotiate’ the terms of your offence and to decide who is liable for whose car’s repairs. The digital clock on your dashboard is flashing 7:15 AM in neon green. You step on the brake pedal long enough to let the taxi guy into your lane. The Prado behind youhonks with impatience; everyone has somewhere to go this morning. *** “Ki Vincent! You look like you didn’t sleep at all! How is Chantal?” Gerald lowers his spectacles and stares at you in mock observation. You only shake your head and smile. “She is fine! But she isn’t the reason I didn’t sleep. Problems never end...” You stare at the blue-white logo of the company. The motto in bright blue seems to step off the cream walls of your small office: GET SOMEWHERE: INSURE WITH US. “What problems now? A single guy like you should not have problems! Leave them to us who are and have families to think about.” Although you are about the same age, Gerald is already married and has a five year old daughter.
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“You know how it is; just because I’m not married doesn’t mean I don’t have responsibilities.” “So how is Mzee?” Gerald asks. You have been friends for long and he knows how much your family means to you. “He is fine. It is just that we need money; the twins are going for their last semester. By Friday, everything should be paid and Mzee does not have the money now. He asked me for five ma!” “Five million! Hah! That is tight! How are you going to get that money in four days?” You shake your head from side to side – you wish your mother was still alive, she always had a way of taking care of things – “I don’t know! Borrowing here and there I guess! Maybe you can lendme something...” “My pockets are dry too! I just paid my daughter’s school fees. That ‘cheap’ nursery school is actually expensive. I wonder how much I will have paid by the time she gets to university!” “You ask me! That five ma doesn’t even cover all their expenses! Education is so expensive, yet weearn so little.” “I know! How many times have we thought of quitting this insurance thing for better jobs?” You and Gerald are both graduates of social sciences. But somehow, you found jobs as sales executives at a local insurance firm. Maybe if the better jobs were there, we would actually quit,” you reply. “But they’re not there! About the money, I doubt many people have much to spare. Since it’s the beginning of the school term, you should try Katumwa.” “But he is a shark and his rates are through the roof!” Katumwa is your colleague in accounts. To ‘get somewhere’ in life, he runs an ‘underground’ money lending business. He is not as bad as the other loan sharks around town. You have heard of people ‘getting’ fatal accidents because of failing to pay off their debts in time. But you have not heard anything bad about Katumwa. Then again, who knows? “Maybe so, but he is your best bet,” Gerald says, “I don’t see any bank giving you that money at such short notice, and of course the other money lenders...” “...I know,” you interrupt Gerald, “...they’re out of the question...they are more dangerous than a colleague, but still you never know...” You are thinking that if you fail to pay up, Katumwa might send you to jail. But if you fail to find the money, that will be the end for the twins. A brief picture of your mother’s lifeless face flashes in front of your eyes. It is just like the last day you saw her in that coffin – the life seeped from her body, but her bright gomesi strangely vibrant and full of life. The twins were just two when she died. She might be helpless to help the twins, but you’re not. “Too late to go to the bank now,” you repeat, as if you are thinking it for the first time. “Let me go see Katumwa, before the boss gets here.” You do not know when you started to think of Katumwa as the ‘Little Shark’. In a strange way the name comforts and fills you with dread at the same time. “Do not forget the boss wants the field report and the returns on his desk,” Gerald adds.
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“Yes, they’re almost ready,” you say as you shut the door to the small office you share with Gerald. As you go through the brightly lit corridor to Little Shark’s office, you touch the flash disk in your pocket – at least you have most of the work there, and another copy of it on your laptop at home. You rap softly at his door, his office is at the end of the corridor. The joke round office is that Little Shark always has his ears peeled to a knock that needs ‘economic redemption’. “Come in!” His shrill voice cuts through the door. As you turn the silver door handle your grip slips because your hands are so clammy with sweat. You wipe your hands on the flanks of your trousers, and furtively look through the corridor hopping to God that no one has seen you feeling your buttocks at the threshold of Little Shark’s door. You finally manage to turn the door handle with both hands. You walk in with the mind that the door is a minute trap door that will only reveal itself once you pay up. “Good morning Katumwa, I need your help!” “Vincent! First things first, you never come to see me! You only remember me in hard times, ehh?” You look at his short forearms supporting his burly face. How can such a small man have so much power? As if he is following your train of thought, Little Shark smiles and says, “How much do you need?” “Five million.” “That is Ok. When do you want it? You know the usual rate, right?” “As soon as yesterday; ten percent, isn’t it?” “My friend, if I lent at that rate, I would never get anywhere. You know the economy is tight, my rate is fourteen percent. Some other guys in the business are charging fifteen percent every month.” “Over a hundred thousand a month? Katumwa, you will kill me!” Before your eyes, the light in his office dims. Manically, he raps his chubby fingers over the calculator keys. “Let’s see...that is just about right; five hundred and twenty-five thousand shillings in three months.” “In three months! That is so much...” “...We can talk six months if you want...” “Out of the question! So you can milk me for twice the amount?” Not in the least bit offended, Little Shark chuckles, “It’s the times my friend, and this is business.”
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 54 You shake your head and touch your neck. The black beads of your rosary feel like a chokehold, “Fine. I’ll take it.” He springs off his desk with a quickness that surprises you. For the first time you notice the steel safe mounted in the wall in the corner of the room. His chubby fingers deftly turn the knob for the combination. It’s like he knew you were coming. He takes out five bundles of fifty thousand notes. He walks over to the counting machine and runs it. It’s all there. He bands it and wraps it in hard khaki paper and tapes the edges. He hands you a grey box package. “Good doing business with you,” Little Shark says. You nod, thinking about the ride to the bank. As you reach the door, he is already bending over his notebook. You turn back to see what he is writing. “There is a receipt for you of course,” he says as he opens a drawer on his left. He pulls out a receipt book and writes out one for you. *** “The money is in your account, Mzee.” You are on phone with your father. It is three o’clock and you are exiting the bank. “Eeh! Weebale nnyo mutabaani! Thank you very much son,” he repeats in English. “It is good to have a son who is somewhere, at least your brother and sister will not drop out, they will get somewhere too one day, not so mutabaani?” “Yes Mzee, they will get somewhere too.” As you hang up the phone, you wonder where that somewhere will be.
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Lilian A. Aujo
Poetry is the school I will never graduate from because no matter how hard – I try I will never tell it all – the secret way of its patterns And how the same letters form different syllables to form different words, And how they fall – in front or behind one another, and if re-arranged would create a whole different story... It is how emotions run High – Low – Calm – Serene Vivacious, like the sun at noon, surreal like the fantasy it promises You never know when poetry goes subtle or quiet. How even when there, It grows deep like a river that bleeds when the dry earth has sucked out her waters...poetry... It is the bird song I cannot articulate The trickle of the tap in a porcelain sink The whoosh of the wind that makes my skin stand on end That thing that knocks the breath out of my lungs The music in you, unsung, yet so fervent you tingle within The notes in the air unwritten on sheets. Tangible, intangible, whatever you please It is useless to try to fathom how, Without seeming to say much, it says so much, How it clings to you like the little hand of a small child begging you to stay Or, like the sticky filmy strands of the spider whose web you never see – but,
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 56 You walk right into anyway... It is the sweet tangle between fantasy and realism And metaphysics and apathy and breath and death But do not worry if the opposites don’t quite match or get criss-crossed right: The rhythms do not always match... see, there in disorder exists the same beauty eminent in order, I have come to learn, That free verse, sonnet, haiku, list, and lyrical when tweaked just right Are like a violin in the hands of a skilled violinist: so many songs from the tip of one bow I live, breathe, dream poetry, in syllables so sweet they tantalise my mind Tie and untie my tongue so I have no choice but try to tell of its complexity, Of all the stories that are spun like the silky strands of Ananse’s tales And the flighty cunning of a hare’s escapades... I laugh so hard tears kiss the corners of my eyes, I learn lessons that might have remained unlearnt had they been in plain black or white See, the twists are new with every turn Like a child’s wheel let loose and thrashing through bushes Like heavy raindrops never knowing their mark – Like the water in a lake that flows in itself and never knows where it ends and or where it begins... yes it is that meld... ...the sublime, the divine...that you never touch Yet you know how it feels... It is the beauty you want to explain but words are always inept to describe It is poetry...existent in as many exquisite and intrinsic patterns As there are on a peacock’s tail: While she sits, her iridescent plumage dazzles us, And when she fans her tail, we see her eye... Hypnotically beautiful...spiralling into the magical chasm of poetry... Do you see the eye of poetry?
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Elone N. Ainebyoona That same night, He picked me along the way. He charmed me with his bundles. He assured me of pleasure each day. He took me around his castles. He asked me to stay.
That same night, I forgot about my pimples. I only felt gay. I could only feel my dimples. I looked forward to his nightly play.
That same night, His body moved like ripples. His hands felt softer than clay. His smooch gave me tickles. His form warmer than an overlay.
That same night, He began to sway. He curved in like a sickle. He shoved me away. He chased me like trouble. He denied me my pay, He only gave me prickles.
That same night I couldn’t believe the betray, I left in hustles. I rushed for the subway. I was all left a ramshackle,
I only had to pray. I dreaded that one night.
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Emmanuel Monychol Walking by the riverside, Imagining dark eyes, Tiny fish in Blue Ocean, Crocodiles struggling to feed, Hippos in the deep,
Waiting for the night to come. Young Calypso suddenly appeared In her flying dress, Balancing a water jar – and singing.
I tried to stop her just to say, “Hello.” The water jar dropped, water flooded the green grass Forcefully uprooting and clearing weeds back to river.
Calypso’s voice rang: “Daddy! Daddy! He has raped me.”
I saw gigantic hands Hold me by the throat. A man in uniform Manacled my hands. Three years later The man with gigantic hands died; he left a letter, Urging me to promise him A grandchild
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Answer the question below. 1. Which of the famous writers in Africa that are being featured above, you think most likely focused on nationalism, equality and human rights? Justify your answer. _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________
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Answer the question below. 1. Which novel that was featured above best suit the Psychological Criticism? Justify your answer. ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________
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Make the following tasks:
111
1. Choose any of the two stories above, and use the Reader-response criticism to analyze the chosen text.
2. Choose any of the three poems above, and use the Formalistic approach to analyze the chosen text. -
Justify your reasons of choosing the text on the space provided below. _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ ___________________
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a. Recognize significance of the Israeli literature b. Use the Moral-Philosophical Approach in analyzing the bible verses c. Critique the short bible story, “The Birth of Jesus Christ through the use Mythological Criticism d. Critique the Short bible story, “David and Goliath, and The Parable of the Prodigal Son” through the use Psychological Criticism
In this chapter, you will learn the history of the Israeli literature. It includes the biblical literature from old to new testaments. You will be introduced to the different bible verses, biblical stories and different books from the Christian bible.
World War II and the ArabIsraeli War of 1948–49 brought to the fore Palestinian-born writers who dealt with the problems of their generation in colloquially flavoured Hebrew. In the State of Israel, where Hebrew had become the official language, literature developed on a large scale, mainly along contemporary western European and American lines.
Photo captured during the World War II
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The extreme diversity in culture of parts of the population and the problems of new immigrants provided the main themes for fiction. Poetry flourished, but original drama at first was slow to develop. Greenberg’s Rehovot HaNahar (1951; “Streets of the River”) traces the process by which the humiliation of the massacred is transmuted by the pride of martyrdom into the historical impulse of messianic redemption. In a long dramatic poem, Bein ha-Esh ve-haYesha (1957; Between the Fire and Salvation), Aaron Zeitlin envisioned the annihilation of European Jewry in mystical terms, examining the relationship of catastrophe and redemption. Native Israeli prose writers wrote of their life in the kibbutz, the underground, and the war of 1948–49. S. Yizhar and Moshe Shamir emerged as the outstanding representatives of this generation, probing the sensibility of the individual in a group-oriented society. But the establishment of the State of Israel could not allay the anxieties of the individual. The dominant themes of writers who had no access to collective ideals were personal ones—frustration, confusion, and alienation. The works of Yehuda Amichai and Haim Gouri are representative of the poetry of this period and of the following decades; their poems emphasize the dissolution of social coherence and express the individual devoid of a sense of historical and spiritual mission. The novelist Aharon Megged’s Ha-Hai ʿal ha-met (1965; The Living on the Dead) casts a putative hero of the pioneer generation in an ironic light. Memories of the Holocaust haunt the lyrical work of Aharon Appelfeld. Flight and hiding are the characteristic situations of his early stories. His Badenhaim, ʿir nofesh (Badenheim 1939), published in 1975, captures the ominous atmosphere of the approaching Holocaust sensed by a group of assimilated Jews vacationing at an Austrian resort. It describes social and spiritual disintegration, as do his novels Tor ha-peli ʾot (1978; The Age of Wonders) and Katerinah (1989; Katerina). Appelfeld’s many other novels and novellas consider the theme of the survivor’s spiritual paralysis (as, for example, in Bartfus ben ha-almavet [1988; The Immortal Bartfuss]) at the same time that they explore the frozen spiritual landscape of the postHolocaust world
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Hebrew Bible,
also called Hebrew Scriptures, Old Testament, or Tanakh, collection of writings that was first compiled and preserved as the sacred books of the Jewish people. It also constitutes a large portion of the Christian Bible. In its general framework, the Hebrew Bible is the account of God’s dealing with the Jews as his chosen people, who collectively called themselves Israel. After an account of the world’s creation by God and the emergence of human civilization, the first six books narrate not only the history but the genealogy of the people of Israel to the conquest and settlement of the Promised Land under the terms of God’s covenant with Abraham, whom God promised to make the progenitor of a great nation. This covenant was subsequently renewed by Abraham’s son Isaac and grandson Jacob (whose byname Israel became the collective name of his descendants and whose sons, according to legend, fathered the 13 Israelite tribes) and centuries later by Moses (from the Israelite tribe of Levi). The following seven books continue their story in the Promised Land, describing the people’s constant apostasy and breaking of the covenant; the establishment and development of the monarchy in order to counter this; and the warnings by the prophets both of impending divine punishment and exile and of Israel’s need to repent. The last 11 books contain poetry, theology, and some additional history. The Hebrew Bible’s profoundly monotheistic interpretation of human life and the universe as creations of God provides the basic structure of ideas that gave rise not only to Judaism and Christianity but also to Islam, which emerged from Jewish and Christian tradition and which views Abraham as a patriarch. Except for a few passages in Aramaic, appearing mainly in the apocalyptic Book of Daniel, these scriptures were written originally in Hebrew during the period from 1200 to 100 BCE. The Hebrew Bible probably reached its current form about the 2nd century CE.
Contains 24 books, one for each of the scrolls on which these works were written in ancient times. The Hebrew Bible is organized into three main sections: the Torah, or “Teaching,” also called the Pentateuch or the “Five Books of Moses”; the Neviʾim, or Prophets; and the Ketuvim, or Writings. It is often referred to as the Tanakh, a word combining the first letter
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 65 from the names of each of the three main divisions. Each of the three main groupings of texts is further subdivided.
Contains narratives combined with rules and instructions in Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. The books of the Neviʾim are categorized among either the Former Prophets—which contain anecdotes about major Hebrew persons and include Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings—or the Latter Prophets—which exhort Israel to return to God and are named (because they are either attributed to or contain stories about them) for Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and (together in one book known as “The Book of the Twelve”) The12 MinorProphets (Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi). The last of the three divisions, the Ketuvim, contains poetry (devotional and erotic), theology, and drama in Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song of Songs (attributed to King Solomon), Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, EzraNehemiah, and Chronicles.
Many Christians refer to the Hebrew Bible as the Old Testament, the prophecy foretelling the advent of Jesus Christ as God’s appointed Messiah. The name Old Testament was devised by a Christian, Melito of Sardis, about 170 CE to distinguish this part of the Bible from the writings that were eventually recognized as the New Testament, recounting the ministry and gospel of Jesus and presenting the history of the early Christian church… The Hebrew Bible as adopted by Christianity features more than 24 books for several reasons. First, Christians divided some of the original Hebrew texts into two or more parts: Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles into two parts each; EzraNehemiah into two separate books; and the Minor Prophets into 12 separate books. Further, the Bibles used in the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and some Protestant churches were derived initially from the Septuagint, the Greek-language translation of the Hebrew Bible produced in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE.
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GENISIS GENESIS
1At the first God made the heaven and the earth. 2 And the earth was waste and without form; and it was dark on the face of the deep: and the Spirit of God was moving on the face of the waters. 3 And God said, Let there be light: and there was light. 4 And God, looking on the light, saw that it was good: and God made a division between the light and the dark, 5 Naming the light, Day, and the dark, Night. And there was evening and there was morning, the first day. 6 And God said, Let there be a solid arch stretching over the waters, parting the waters from the waters. 7 And God made the arch for a division between the waters which were under the arch and those which were over it: and it was so. 8 And God gave the arch the name of Heaven. And there was evening and there was morning, the second day. 9 And God said, Let the waters under the heaven come together in one place, and let the dry land be seen: and it was so. 10 And God gave the dry land the name of Earth; and the waters together in their place were named Seas: and God saw that it was good. Read the remaining verses at https://www.biblestudytools.com/bbe/ https://www.biblestudytools.com/bbe/genesis/
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EXODUS 1 Now a man of the house of Levi took as his wife a daughter of Levi. 2 And she became with child and gave birth to a Son; and when she saw that he was a beautiful child, she kept him secretly for three months. 3 And when she was no longer able to keep him secret, she made him a basket out of the stems of water-plants, pasting sticky earth over it to keep the water out; and placing the baby in it she put it among the plants by the edge of the Nile. 4 And his sister took her place at a distance to see what would become of him. 5 Now Pharaoh's daughter came down to the Nile to take a bath, while her women were walking by the riverside; and she saw the basket among the river-plants, and sent her servant-girl to get it. 6 And opening it, she saw the child, and he was crying. And she had pity on him, and said, This is one of the Hebrews' children. 7 Then his sister said to Pharaoh's daughter, May I go and get you one of the Hebrew women to give him the breast? 8 And Pharaoh's daughter said to her, Go. And the girl went and got the child's mother. 9 And Pharaoh's daughter said to her, Take the child away and give it milk for me, and I will give you payment. And the woman took the child and gave it milk at her breast. 10 And when the child was older, she took him to Pharaoh's daughter and he became her son, and she gave him the name Moses, Because, she said, I took him out of the water. Read the remaining verses at https://www.biblestudytools.com/bbe/exodus/2.html
LEVITICUS 1 And if his offering is given for a peaceoffering; if he gives of the herd, male or female, let him give it without any mark on it, before the Lord. 2 And he is to put his hand on the head of his offering and put it to death at the door of the Tent of meeting; and Aaron's sons, the priests, are to put some of the blood on and round the altar. 3 And he is to give of the peace-offering, as an offering made by fire to the Lord; the fat covering the inside parts and all the fat on the inside parts, 4 And the two kidneys, and the fat on them, which is by the top part of the legs, and the fat joining the liver and the kidneys, he is to take away; 5 That it may be burned by Aaron's sons on the altar, on the burned offering which is on the wood on the fire: it is an offering made by fire of a sweet smell to the Lord. 6 And if what he gives for a peace-offering to the Lord is of the flock, let him give a male or female, without any mark on it. 7 If his offering is a lamb, then let it be placed before the Lord: 8 And he is to put his hand on the head of his offering and put it to death before the Tent of meeting; and Aaron's sons are to put some of its blood on and round the altar. 9 And of the peace-offering, let him give an offering made by fire to the Lord; the fat of it, all the fat tail, he is to take away near the backbone; and the fat covering the inside parts and all the fat on the inside parts, 10 And the two kidneys, with the fat on them, which is by the top part of the legs, and the fat joining the liver and the kidneys, he is to take away; Read the remaining verses at https://www.biblestudytools.com/bbe/leviticus/3.html
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NUMBERS 1 And the Lord said to Moses and Aaron, 2 Let the sons of Kohath, from among the sons of Levi, be numbered by their families, in the order of their fathers' houses; 3 All those from thirty to fifty years old who are able to do the work of the Tent of meeting. 4 And this is to be the work of the sons of Kohath in connection with the most holy things. 5 When all the people go forward, Aaron is to go in with his sons, and take down the veil of the curtain, covering the ark of witness with it; 6 And putting over it the leather cover and over that a blue cloth; and putting its rods in place. 7 And on the table of the holy bread they are to put a blue cloth, and on it all the vessels, the spoons and the basins and the cups; and the holy bread with them; 8 And over them they are to put a red cloth, covering it with a leather cover, and putting its rods in their places. 9 And they are to take a blue cloth, covering with it the light-support with its lights and its instruments and its trays and all the oil vessels which are used for it: 10 All these they are to put in a leather cover, and put it on the frame.
DEUTERONOMY 1 And Moses sent for all Israel, and said to them, Give ear, O Israel, to the laws and the decisions which I give you today, and give attention to them so that you may keep and do them. 2 The Lord our God made an agreement with us in Horeb. 3 The Lord did not make this agreement with our fathers but with us, who are all living and present here today. 4 The word of the Lord came to you face to face on the mountain, out of the heart of the fire, 5 (I was between the Lord and you at that time, to make clear to you the word of the Lord: because, through fear of the fire, you did not go up the mountain;) saying, 6 I am the Lord your God, who took you out of the land of Egypt, out of the prisonhouse. 7 You are to have no other gods but me. 8 You may not make for yourselves an image in the form of anything in heaven or on earth or in the waters under the earth: 9 You may not go down on your faces before them or give them worship: for I, the Lord your God, am a God who will not give his honour to another; and I will send punishment on the children for the wrongdoing of their fathers, to the third and fourth generation of my haters; 10 And I will have mercy through a thousand generations on those who have love for me and keep my laws.
Read the remaining verses at https://www.biblestudytools.com/bbe/numbers/4.html
Read the remaining verses at https://www.biblestudytools.com/bbe/deuteronomy/5.ht ml
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JOSHUA
OBADIAH
JUDGES
JONAH
RUTH
MICAH
1 SAMUEL
NAHUM NEHEMIAH
ISAIAH
ESTHER
JEREMIAH
JOB
LAMENTATIONS
PSALMS
EZEKIEL
PROVERBS
DANIEL
ECCLESIASTES
HOSE
ISAIAH
JOEL
SONG OF SOLOMON
AMOS
2 SAMUEL 1KINGS 1 CHRONICLES EZRA
You may read its verses at https://www.biblestudytools.com/bbe/
HABAKKUK ZEPHANIAH ZAGGAI ZECHARIAH MALACHIA
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The New Testament has 27 books total, which consist of the following:
Historical Books Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, Acts
Pauline Epistles Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, 1 Thessalonians, 2 Thessalonians, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon
Non-Pauline Epistles Hebrews, James, 1 Peter, 2 Peter, 1 John, 2 John, 3 John, Jude, Revelation
HISTORICAL BOOKS Matthew Presents Jesus as the Messiah. Genealogy of Jesus through Joseph. Fulfillment of O.T. prophecy. Mark Presents Jesus as the Servant. 1/3 of the gospel deals with the last week of His life. Luke Pauline Epistles Presents Jesus as the Son of Man to seek and save the lost.
Genealogy of Jesus Largest of the gospels.
through
Mary.
John Presents Jesus as God in flesh, the Christ, so that you might believe. Acts - Historical account from Jesus’ ascension to travels of Paul in his missionary journeys.
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 71 Romans A systematic examination of justification, sanctification, and glorification. Examines God’s plan for the Jews and the Gentiles. 1 Corinthians This letter deals with factions and corrections due to immorality, lawsuits, and abuse of the Lord’s Supper. Also mentions idols, marriage, and the resurrection.
1 Timothy - Instructions to Timothy on proper leadership and dealings with false teachers, the role of women, prayer, and requirements of elders and deacons. 2 Timothy - A letter of encouragement to Timothy to be strong. Titus Paul left Titus in Crete to care for the churches there. Requirements for elders. Philemon
2 Corinthians Paul’s defense of his apostolic position. Galatians Paul refutes the errors of legalism and examines the proper place of grace in the Christian’s life. Ephesians The believer’s position in Christ and information on Spiritual warfare. Philippians Paul speaks of his imprisonment and his love for the Philippians. He exhorts them to godliness and warns them of legalism. Colossians Paul focuses on the preeminence of Jesus in creation, redemption, and godliness.
a letter to the owner of a runaway slave. Paul appeals to Philemon to forgive Onesimus.
NON PAULINE EPISTLES Hebrews A letter to the Hebrew Christians in danger of returning to Judaism. It demonstrates the superiority of Jesus over the O.T. system. Mentions the Melchizedek priesthood. (Hebrews may be of Pauline origin. There is much debate on its authorship). James a practical exhortation of believers to live a Christian life evidencing regeneration. It urges self-examination of the evidence of the changed life. 1 Peter
1 Thessalonians - Paul’s ministry to the Thessalonians. Teachings on purity and mention of the return of Christ.
Peter wrote this letter to encourage its recipients in the light of their suffering and be humble in it. Mentions baptism.
2 Thessalonians - Corrections on the Day of the Lord.
2 Peter Deals with the person on an inward level, warnings against false teachers, and mentions the Day of the Lord.
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3 John
John describes true fellowship of the believers with other believers and with God. God as light and love. Encourages a holy Christian walk before the Lord. Much mention of Christian love.
John thanks Gaius for his kindness to God’s people and rebukes Diotrephes. Jude
2 John
Exposing false teachers and uses O.T. allusions to demonstrate the judgment upon them. Contends for the faith.
Praise for walking in Christ and a reminder to walk in God’s love.
Revelation A highly symbolic vision of the future rebellion, judgment, and consummation of all things.
MATTHEW 1 The book of the generations of Jesus Christ, the son of David, the son of Abraham.
6 And the son of Jesse was David the king; and the son of David was Solomon by her who had been the wife of Uriah;
2 The son of Abraham was Isaac; and the son of Isaac was Jacob; and the sons of Jacob were Judah and his brothers;
7 And the son of Solomon was Rehoboam; and the son of Rehoboam was Abijah; and the son of Abijah was Asa;
3 And the sons of Judah were Perez and Zerah by Tamar; and the son of Perez was Hezron; and the son of Hezron was Ram; 4 And the son of Ram was Amminadab; and the son of Amminadab was Nahshon; and the son of Nahshon was Salmon; 5 And the son of Salmon by Rahab was Boaz; and the son of Boaz by Ruth was Obed; and the son of Obed was Jesse;
8 And the son of Asa was Jehoshaphat; and the son of Jehoshaphat was Joram; and the son of Joram was Uzziah; 9 And the son of Uzziah was Jotham; and the son of Jotham was Ahaz; and the son of Ahaz was Hezekiah; 10 And the son of Hezekiah was Manasseh; and the son of Manasseh was Amon; and the son of Amon was Josiah;
Read the remaining verses at https://www.biblestudytools.com/bbe/ https://www.biblestudytools.com/bbe/genesis/
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MARK 1And when he came into Capernaum again after some days, the news went about that he was in the house. 2 And a great number had come together, so that there was no longer room for them, no, not even about the door: and he gave them teaching. 3 And four men came to him with one on a bed who had no power of moving. 4 And when they were unable to get near him because of all the people, they got the roof uncovered where he was: and when it was broken up, they let down the bed on which the man was. 5 And Jesus, seeing their faith, said to him, Son, you have forgiveness for your sins. 6 But there were certain of the scribes seated there, and reasoning in their hearts,
LUKE 1 Now in the fifteenth year of the rule of Tiberius Caesar, Pontius Pilate being ruler of Judaea, and Herod being king of Galilee, his brother Philip king of the country of Ituraea and Trachonitis, and Lysanias king of Abilene, 2 When Annas and Caiaphas were high priests, the word of the Lord came to John, the son of Zacharias, in the waste land. 3 And he came into all the country round about Jordan, preaching baptism as a sign of forgiveness of sin for those whose hearts were changed. 4 As it says in the book of the words of Isaiah the prophet, The voice of one crying in the waste land, Make ready the way of the Lord, make his roads straight. 5 Every valley will be lifted up, and all the mountains and hills made low, and the twisted will be made straight, and the rough ways smooth;
7 Why does this man say such things? he has no respect for God: from whom does forgiveness come but from God only?
6 And all flesh will see the salvation of God.
8 And Jesus, having knowledge in his spirit of their thoughts, said to them, Why are you reasoning about these things in your hearts?
7 So he said to the people who went out to him for baptism: You offspring of snakes, at whose word are you going in flight from the wrath to come?
9 Which is the simpler, to say to a man who is ill, You have forgiveness for your sins, or, Get up, take up your bed, and go?
8 Make clear by your acts that your hearts have been changed; and do not say to yourselves, We have Abraham for our father: for I say to you that God is able from these stones to make children of Abraham.
10 But so that you may see that the Son of man has authority for the forgiveness of sins on earth, (he said to the man,)
9 And even now the axe is put to the root of the trees; and every tree which does not have good fruit will be cut down and put into the fire. 10 And the people put questions to him, saying, What have we to do?
Read the remaining verses at https://www.biblestudytools.com/bbe/mark/2.html
Read the remaining verses at https://www.biblestudytools.com/bbe/luke/3.html
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JOHN 1 Now when it was clear to the Lord that word had come to the ears of the Pharisees that Jesus was making more disciples than John and was giving them baptism 2 (Though, in fact, it was his disciples who gave baptism, not Jesus himself), 3 He went out of Judaea into Galilee again. 4 And it was necessary for him to go through Samaria. 5 So he came to a town of Samaria which was named Sychar, near to the bit of land which Jacob gave to his son Joseph: 6 Now Jacob's fountain was there. Jesus, being tired after his journey, was resting by the fountain. It was about the sixth hour.
ACTS 1 But a certain man named Ananias, with Sapphira his wife, got money for his property, 2 And kept back part of the price, his wife having knowledge of it, and took the rest and put it at the feet of the Apostles. 3 But Peter said, Ananias, why has the Evil One put it into your heart to be false to the Holy Spirit, and to keep back part of the price of the land? 4 While you had it, was it not your property? and after you had given it in exchange, was it not still in your power? how has this purpose come into your mind? you have been false, not to men, but to God. 5 And at these words, Ananias went down on the earth, and his life went from him: and great fear came on all who were present. 6 And the young men went and made ready his body, and took it out, and put it in the earth.
7 A woman of Samaria came to get water, and Jesus said to her, Give me some water.
7 And about three hours after, his wife, having no knowledge of what had taken place, came in.
8 For his disciples had gone to the town to get food.
8 And Peter said to her, Give me an answer: was this amount of money the price of the land? And she said, Yes, it was.
9 The woman of Samaria said to him, Why do you, a Jew, make a request for water to me, a woman of Samaria? She said this because Jews have nothing to do with the people of Samaria.
9 But Peter said to her, Why have you made an agreement together to be false to the Spirit of the Lord? See, the feet of the young men who have put the body of your husband in the earth, are at the door, and they will take you out.
10 In answer Jesus said, If you had knowledge of what God gives freely and who it is who says to you, Give me water, you would make your prayer to him, and he would give you living water. Read the remaining verses at https://www.biblestudytools.com/bbe/john/4.html
10 And straight away she went down at his feet, and her life went from her: and the young men came in and saw her dead, and they took her out and put her in the earth with her husband.
Read the remaining verses at https://www.biblestudytools.com/bbe/acts/5.html
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1 Samuel 17 new International Version (NIV)
17 Now the Philistines gathered their forces for war and assembled at Sokoh in Judah. They pitched camp at Ephes Dammim, between Sokoh and Azekah. 2 Saul and the Israelites assembled and camped in the Valley of Elah and drew up their battle line to meet the Philistines. 3 The Philistines occupied one hill and the Israelites another, with the valley between them.
4 A champion named Goliath, who was from Gath, came out of the Philistine camp. His height was six cubits and a span.[a] 5 He had a bronze helmet on his head and wore a coat of scale armor of bronze weighing five thousand shekels[b]; 6 on his legs he wore bronze greaves, and a bronze javelin was slung on his back. 7 His spear shaft was like a weaver’s rod, and its iron point weighed six hundred shekels.[c] His shield bearer went ahead of him.
8 Goliath stood and shouted to the ranks of Israel, “Why do you come out and line up for battle? Am I not a Philistine, and are you not the servants of Saul? Choose a man and have him come down to me. 9 If he is able to fight and kill me, we will become your subjects; but if I overcome him and kill him, you will become our subjects and serve us.” 10 Then the Philistine said, “This day I defy the armies of Israel! Give me a man and let us fight each other.” 11 On hearing the Philistine’s words, Saul and all the Israelites were dismayed and terrified.
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12 Now David was the son of an Ephrathite named Jesse, who was from Bethlehem in Judah. Jesse had eight sons, and in Saul’s time he was very old. 13 Jesse’s three oldest sons had followed Saul to the war: The firstborn was Eliab; the second, Abinadab; and the third, Shammah. 14 David was the youngest. The three oldest followed Saul, 15 but David went back and forth from Saul to tend his father’s sheep at Bethlehem.
16 For forty days the Philistine came forward every morning and evening and took his stand.
17 Now Jesse said to his son David, “Take this ephah[d] of roasted grain and these ten loaves of bread for your brothers and hurry to their camp. 18 Take along these ten cheeses to the commander of their unit. See how your brothers are and bring back some assurance[e] from them. 19 They are with Saul and all the men of Israel in the Valley of Elah, fighting against the Philistines.”
20 Early in the morning David left the flock in the care of a shepherd, loaded up and set out, as Jesse had directed. He reached the camp as the army was going out to its battle positions, shouting the war cry. 21 Israel and the Philistines were drawing up their lines facing each other. 22 David left his things with the keeper of supplies, ran to the battle lines and asked his brothers how they were. 23 As he was talking with them, Goliath, the Philistine champion from Gath, stepped out from his lines and shouted his usual defiance, and David heard it. 24 Whenever the Israelites saw the man, they all fled from him in great fear.
25 Now the Israelites had been saying, “Do you see how this man keeps coming out? He comes out to defy Israel. The king will give great wealth to the man who kills him. He will also give him his daughter in marriage and will exempt his family from taxes in Israel.”
26 David asked the men standing near him, “What will be done for the man who kills this Philistine and removes this disgrace from Israel? Who is this uncircumcised Philistine that he should defy the armies of the living God?”
27 They repeated to him what they had been saying and told him, “This is what will be done for the man who kills him.”
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 77 28 When Eliab, David’s oldest brother, heard him speaking with the men, he burned with anger at him and asked, “Why have you come down here? And with whom did you leave those few sheep in the wilderness? I know how conceited you are and how wicked your heart is; you came down only to watch the battle.”
29 “Now what have I done?” said David. “Can’t I even speak?” 30 He then turned away to someone else and brought up the same matter, and the men answered him as before. 31 What David said was overheard and reported to Saul, and Saul sent for him.
32 David said to Saul, “Let no one lose heart on account of this Philistine; your servant will go and fight him.”
33 Saul replied, “You are not able to go out against this Philistine and fight him; you are only a young man, and he has been a warrior from his youth.”
34 But David said to Saul, “Your servant has been keeping his father’s sheep. When a lion or a bear came and carried off a sheep from the flock, 35 I went after it, struck it and rescued the sheep from its mouth. When it turned on me, I seized it by its hair, struck it and killed it. 36 Your servant has killed both the lion and the bear; this uncircumcised Philistine will be like one of them, because he has defied the armies of the living God. 37 The Lord who rescued me from the paw of the lion and the paw of the bear will rescue me from the hand of this Philistine.”
Saul said to David, “Go, and the Lord be with you.”
38 Then Saul dressed David in his own tunic. He put a coat of armor on him and a bronze helmet on his head. 39 David fastened on his sword over the tunic and tried walking around, because he was not used to them.
“I cannot go in these,” he said to Saul, “because I am not used to them.” So he took them off. 40 Then he took his staff in his hand, chose five smooth stones from the stream, put them in the pouch of his shepherd’s bag and, with his sling in his hand, approached the Philistine.
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 78 41 Meanwhile, the Philistine, with his shield bearer in front of him, kept coming closer to David. 42 He looked David over and saw that he was little more than a boy, glowing with health and handsome, and he despised him. 43 He said to David, “Am I a dog, that you come at me with sticks?” And the Philistine cursed David by his gods. 44 “Come here,” he said, “and I’ll give your flesh to the birds and the wild animals!”
45 David said to the Philistine, “You come against me with sword and spear and javelin, but I come against you in the name of the Lord Almighty, the God of the armies of Israel, whom you have defied. 46 This day the Lord will deliver you into my hands, and I’ll strike you down and cut off your head. This very day I will give the carcasses of the Philistine army to the birds and the wild animals, and the whole world will know that there is a God in Israel. 47 All those gathered here will know that it is not by sword or spear that the Lord saves; for the battle is the Lord’s, and he will give all of you into our hands.”
48 As the Philistine moved closer to attack him, David ran quickly toward the battle line to meet him. 49 Reaching into his bag and taking out a stone, he slung it and struck the Philistine on the forehead. The stone sank into his forehead, and he fell facedown on the ground.
50 So David triumphed over the Philistine with a sling and a stone; without a sword in his hand he struck down the Philistine and killed him.
51 David ran and stood over him. He took hold of the Philistine’s sword and drew it from the sheath. After he killed him, he cut off his head with the sword. When the Philistines saw that their hero was dead, they turned and ran. 52 Then the men of Israel and Judah surged forward with a shout and pursued the Philistines to the entrance of Gath[f] and to the gates of Ekron. Their dead were strewn along the Shaaraim road to Gath and Ekron. 53 When the Israelites returned from chasing the Philistines, they plundered their camp.
54 David took the Philistine’s head and brought it to Jerusalem; he put the Philistine’s weapons in his own tent. 55 As Saul watched David going out to meet the Philistine, he said to Abner, commander of the army, “Abner, whose son is that young man?”
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 79 Abner replied, “As surely as you live, Your Majesty, I don’t know.” 56 The king said, “Find out whose son this young man is.” 57 As soon as David returned from killing the Philistine, Abner took him and brought him before Saul, with David still holding the Philistine’s head. 58 “Whose son are you, young man?” Saul asked him. David said, “I am the son of your servant Jesse of Bethlehem.”
The Parable of
Luke 15:11-32 English Standard Version (ESV)
11 And he said, “There was a man who had two sons. 12 And the younger of them said to his father, ‘Father, give me the share of property that is coming to me.’ And he divided his property between them. 13 Not many days later, the younger son gathered all he had and took a journey into a far country, and there he squandered his property in reckless living. 14 And when he had spent everything, a severe famine arose in that country, and he began to be in need. 15 So he went and hired himself out to[a] one of the citizens of that country, who sent him into his fields to feed pigs. 16 And he was longing to be fed with the pods that the pigs ate, and no one gave him anything.
17 “But when he came to himself, he said, ‘How many of my father's hired servants have more than enough bread, but I perish here with hunger! 18 I will arise and go to my father, and I will say to him, “Father, I have sinned against heaven and before you. 19 I am no longer worthy to be called your son. Treat me as one of your hired servants.”’ 20 And he arose and came to his father. But while he was still a long way off, his father saw him and felt compassion, and ran and embraced him and kissed him. 21 And the son said to him, ‘Father, I have sinned against heaven and before you. I am no longer worthy to be called your son.’[b] 22 But the father said to his servants,[c] ‘Bring quickly the best robe, and put it on him, and put a ring on his hand, and shoes on his feet. 23 And bring the fattened calf and kill it, and let us eat and celebrate. 24 For this my son was dead, and is alive again; he was lost, and is found.’ And they began to celebrate.
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25 “Now his older son was in the field, and as he came and drew near to the house, he heard music and dancing. 26 And he called one of the servants and asked what these things meant. 27 And he said to him, ‘Your brother has come, and your father has killed the fattened calf, because he has received him back safe and sound.’ 28 But he was angry and refused to go in. His father came out and entreated him, 29 but he answered his father, ‘Look, these many years I have served you, and I never disobeyed your command, yet you never gave me a young goat, that I might celebrate with my friends. 30 But when this son of yours came, who has devoured your property with prostitutes, you killed the fattened calf for him!’ 31 And he said to him, ‘Son, you are always with me, and all that is mine is yours. 32 It was fitting to celebrate and be glad, for this your brother was dead, and is alive; he was lost, and is found.’”
Ruth 1-4
CHAPTER 1 1Now it came to pass in the days when the judges judged, that there was a famine in the land, and a man went from Bethlehem of Judah to sojourn in the fields of Moab, he and his wife and his two sons. 2And the man's name was Elimelech, and his wife's name was Naomi, and his two sons' names were Mahlon and Chilion, Ephrathites, from Bethlehem of Judah, and they came to the fields of Moab and remained there. 3Now Elimelech, Naomi's husband, died, and she was left with her two sons. 4And they married Moabite women, one named Orpah, and the other named Ruth, and they dwelt there for about ten years. 5And both Mahlon and Chilion also died, and the woman was left [bereft] of her two children and of her husband. 6Now she arose with her daughters-in-law and returned from the fields of Moab, for she had heard in the field of Moab that the Lord had remembered His people to give them bread.
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 81 7Then she went forth from the place where she had been, and her two daughters-in-law with her, and they went on the road to return to the land of Judah. 8And Naomi said to her two daughters-in-law, "Go, return each woman to her mother's house. May the Lord deal kindly with you as you have dealt with the deceased and with me.
9May the Lord grant you that you find rest, each woman in her husband's house," and she kissed them, and they raised their voices and wept. 10And they said to her, "[No,] but we will return with you to your people." 11And Naomi said, "Return, my daughters; why should you go with me? Have I yet sons in my womb, that they should be your husbands? 12Return, my daughters, go, for I have become too old to marry, that I should say that I have hope. Even if I had a husband tonight, and even if I had borne sons, 13Would you wait for them until they grew up? Would you shut yourselves off for them and not marry? No, my daughters, for it is much more bitter for me than for you, for the hand of the Lord has gone forth against me." 14And they raised their voices and wept again; and Orpah kissed her mother-in-law, but Ruth cleaved to her. 15And she said, "Lo, your sister-in-law has returned to her people and to her god; return after your sister- in-law." 16And Ruth said, "Do not entreat me to leave you, to return from following you, for wherever you go, I will go, and wherever you lodge, I will lodge; your people shall be my people and your God my God. 17Where you die, I will die, and there I will be buried. So may the Lord do to me and so may He continue, if anything but death separate me and you." 18And she saw that she was determined to go with her; so she stopped speaking to her.
19And they both went on until they arrived to Bethlehem. And it came to pass when they arrived to Bethlehem, that the entire city was astir on their account, and they said, "Is this Naomi?" 20And she said to them, "Do not call me Naomi; call me Marah, for the Almighty has dealt very bitterly with me. 21I went away full, and the Lord has brought me back empty. Why [then] should you call me Naomi, seeing that the Lord has testified against me, and the Almighty has dealt harshly with me?"
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 82 22So Naomi returned, and Ruth the Moabitess, her daughter-in- law, with her, who returned from the fields of Moab-and they came to Bethlehem at the beginning of the barley harvest. Read the remaining chapters at https://www.chabad.org/library/bible_cdo/aid/16454/jewish/Chapter-2.htm
Judith 1-16
CHAPTER 1
1It was the twelfth year* of the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, who ruled over the Assyrians in the great city of Nineveh. At that time Arphaxad was ruling over the Medes in Ecbatana.a 2 Around Ecbatana he built a wall of hewn stones, three cubits thick and six cubits long. He made the walls seventy cubits high and fifty cubits wide. 3At its gates he raised towers one hundred cubits high with foundations sixty cubits wide. 4He made its gates seventy cubits high and forty cubits wide to allow passage of his mighty forces, with his infantry in formation. 5At that time King Nebuchadnezzar waged war against King Arphaxad in the vast plain that borders Ragau.* 6Rallying to him were all who lived in the hill country, all who lived along the Euphrates, the Tigris, and the Hydaspes, as well as Arioch, king of the Elamites, in the plains. Thus many nations joined the ranks of the Chelodites.* b
7Then Nebuchadnezzar, king of the Assyrians, contacted all the inhabitants of Persia* and all who lived in the west, the inhabitants of Cilicia and Damascus, Lebanon and Antilebanon, and all who lived along the seacoast,
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 83 8the peoples of Carmel, Gilead, Upper Galilee, and the vast plain of Esdraelon, 9and all in Samaria and its cities, and west of the Jordan as far as Jerusalem, Bethany, Chelous, Kadesh,c and the river of Egypt; Tahpanhes,d Raamses, all the land of Goshen, 10Tanis, Memphise and beyond, and all the inhabitants of Egypt as far as the borders of Ethiopia. 11But all the inhabitants of the whole land* made light of the summons of Nebuchadnezzar, king of the Assyrians, and would not join him in the war. They were not afraid of him, since he was only a single opponent. So they sent back his envoys empty-handed and disgraced.f 12Then Nebuchadnezzar fell into a violent rage against all the land, and swore by his throne and his kingdom that he would take revenge on all the territories of Cilicia, Damascus, and Syria, and would destroy with his sword all the inhabitants of Moab, Ammon, the whole of Judea, and all those living in Egypt as far as the coasts of the two seas.*
Defeat of Arphaxad.
13In the seventeenth year* he mustered his forces against King Arphaxad and was victorious in his campaign. He routed the whole force of Arphaxad, his entire cavalry, and all his chariots, 14and took possession of his cities. He pressed on to Ecbatana, took its towers, sacked its marketplaces, and turned its glory into shame. 15He captured Arphaxad in the mountains of Ragau, ran him through with spears, and utterly destroyed him once and for all. 16Then he returned to Nineveh with all his consolidated forces, a very great multitude of warriors; and there he and his forces relaxed and feasted for one hundred and twenty days.g
Read the remaining chapters at http://www.usccb.org/bible/judith/1
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Judges 16 New International Version (NIV)
16 One day Samson went to Gaza, where he saw a prostitute. He went in to spend the night with her. 2 The people of Gaza were told, “Samson is here!” So they surrounded the place and lay in wait for him all night at the city gate. They made no move during the night, saying, “At dawn we’ll kill him.” 3 But Samson lay there only until the middle of the night. Then he got up and took hold of the doors of the city gate, together with the two posts, and tore them loose, bar and all. He lifted them to his shoulders and carried them to the top of the hill that faces Hebron. 4 Some time later, he fell in love with a woman in the Valley of Sorek whose name was Delilah. 5 The rulers of the Philistines went to her and said, “See if you can lure him into showing you the secret of his great strength and how we can overpower him so we may tie him up and subdue him. Each one of us will give you eleven hundred shekels[a] of silver.” 6 So Delilah said to Samson, “Tell me the secret of your great strength and how you can be tied up and subdued.” 7 Samson answered her, “If anyone ties me with seven fresh bowstrings that have not been dried, I’ll become as weak as any other man.” 8 Then the rulers of the Philistines brought her seven fresh bowstrings that had not been dried, and she tied him with them. 9 With men hidden in the room, she called to him, “Samson, the Philistines are upon you!” But he snapped the bowstrings as easily as a piece of string snaps when it comes close to a flame. So the secret of his strength was not discovered. 10 Then Delilah said to Samson, “You have made a fool of me; you lied to me. Come now, tell me how you can be tied.” 11 He said, “If anyone ties me securely with new ropes that have never been used, I’ll become as weak as any other man.” 12 So Delilah took new ropes and tied him with them. Then, with men hidden in the room, she called to him, “Samson, the Philistines are upon you!” But he snapped the ropes off his arms as if they were threads.
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13 Delilah then said to Samson, “All this time you have been making a fool of me and lying to me. Tell me how you can be tied.” He replied, “If you weave the seven braids of my head into the fabric on the loom and tighten it with the pin, I’ll become as weak as any other man.” So while he was sleeping, Delilah took the seven braids of his head, wove them into the fabric 14 and[b] tightened it with the pin. Again she called to him, “Samson, the Philistines are upon you!” He awoke from his sleep and pulled up the pin and the loom, with the fabric. 15 Then she said to him, “How can you say, ‘I love you,’ when you won’t confide in me? This is the third time you have made a fool of me and haven’t told me the secret of your great strength.” 16 With such nagging she prodded him day after day until he was sick to death of it. 17 So he told her everything. “No razor has ever been used on my head,” he said, “because I have been a Nazirite dedicated to God from my mother’s womb. If my head were shaved, my strength would leave me, and I would become as weak as any other man.” 18 When Delilah saw that he had told her everything, she sent word to the rulers of the Philistines, “Come back once more; he has told me everything.” So the rulers of the Philistines returned with the silver in their hands. 19 After putting him to sleep on her lap, she called for someone to shave off the seven braids of his hair, and so began to subdue him.[c] And his strength left him. 20 Then she called, “Samson, the Philistines are upon you!” He awoke from his sleep and thought, “I’ll go out as before and shake myself free.” But he did not know that the Lord had left him. 21 Then the Philistines seized him, gouged out his eyes and took him down to Gaza. Binding him with bronze shackles, they set him to grinding grain in the prison. 22 But the hair on his head began to grow again after it had been shaved. The Death of Samson 23 Now the rulers of the Philistines assembled to offer a great sacrifice to Dagon their god and to celebrate, saying, “Our god has delivered Samson, our enemy, into our hands.” 24 When the people saw him, they praised their god, saying, “Our god has delivered our enemy into our hands, the one who laid waste our land and multiplied our slain.”
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25 While they were in high spirits, they shouted, “Bring out Samson to entertain us.” So they called Samson out of the prison, and he performed for them. When they stood him among the pillars, 26 Samson said to the servant who held his hand, “Put me where I can feel the pillars that support the temple, so that I may lean against them.” 27 Now the temple was crowded with men and women; all the rulers of the Philistines were there, and on the roof were about three thousand men and women watching Samson perform. 28 Then Samson prayed to the Lord, “Sovereign Lord, remember me. Please, God, strengthen me just once more, and let me with one blow get revenge on the Philistines for my two eyes.” 29 Then Samson reached toward the two central pillars on which the temple stood. Bracing himself against them, his right hand on the one and his left hand on the other, 30 Samson said, “Let me die with the Philistines!” Then he pushed with all his might, and down came the temple on the rulers and all the people in it. Thus he killed many more when he died than while he lived. 31 Then his brothers and his father’s whole family went down to get him. They brought him back and buried him between Zorah and Eshtaol in the tomb of Manoah his father. He had led[d] Israel twenty years.
The Birth of
Luke 2:1-20 New International Version (NIV)
2 In those days Caesar Augustus issued a decree that a census should be taken of the entire Roman world. 2 (This was the first census that took place while[a] Quirinius was governor of Syria.) 3 And everyone went to their own town to register. 4 So Joseph also went up from the town of Nazareth in Galilee to Judea, to Bethlehem the town of David, because he belonged to the house and line of David. 5 He went there to register with Mary, who was pledged to be married to him and was expecting a child. 6 While they were there, the time came for the baby to be born, 7 and she gave birth to her firstborn, a son. She wrapped him in cloths and placed him in a manger, because there was no guest room available for them. 8 And there were shepherds living out in the fields nearby, keeping watch over their flocks at night. 9 An angel of the Lord appeared to them, and the glory of the Lord shone around them, and they were terrified. 10 But the angel said to them, “Do not be afraid. I bring you good news
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 87 that will cause great joy for all the people. 11 Today in the town of David a Savior has been born to you; he is the Messiah, the Lord. 12 This will be a sign to you: You will find a baby wrapped in cloths and lying in a manger.” 13 Suddenly a great company of the heavenly host appeared with the angel, praising God and saying, 14 “Glory to God in the highest heaven, and on earth peace to those on whom his favor rests.” 15 When the angels had left them and gone into heaven, the shepherds said to one another, “Let’s go to Bethlehem and see this thing that has happened, which the Lord has told us about.” 16 So they hurried off and found Mary and Joseph, and the baby, who was lying in the manger. 17 When they had seen him, they spread the word concerning what had been told them about this child, 18 and all who heard it were amazed at what the shepherds said to them. 19 But Mary treasured up all these things and pondered them in her heart. 20 The shepherds returned, glorifying and praising God for all the things they had heard and seen, which were just as they had been told.
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Answer the question below. 1. What significance does the Israeli literature brought the world? _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________
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Make the following tasks:
a. Use the Moral-Philosophical Criticism upon analyzing the book of Genesis chapter 1:1-10, Exodus 2:1-10, Leviticus 3:1-10, Numbers 4: 1-10, Matthew 1:1-10, Mark 2:1-10, Luke 3:1-9, and John 4:1-10, Acts 5:1-10.
b. Use the Mythological Criticism upon analyzing the biblical story, “The Birth of Jesus Christ”
c. Use the Psychological Criticism in analyzing the biblical stories, “David and Goliath, and The Parable of The Prodigal Son.
(The space provided below is for comments and feedbacks.)
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a. Answer questions about the Egyptian writers and their work of literature b. Critique the, ‘’Speech of Mohamed Morsi through using the Historical and Biographical Criticism
In this chapter you will know the qualities of the Egyptian literature and its historical background starting from the old to the new kingdom. You will also know different works of poetry and prose together with some famous writers in Egypt.
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 91 Ancient Egyptian literature comprises a wide array of narrative and poetic forms including inscriptions on tombs, stele, obelisks, and temples; myths, stories, and legends; religious writings; philosophical works; autobiographies; biographies; histories; poetry; hymns; personal essays; letters and court records. Although many of these forms are not usually defined as "literature" they are given that designation in Egyptian studies because so many of them, especially from the Middle Kingdom (2040-1782 BCE), are of such high literary merit. The first examples of Egyptian writing come from the Early Dynastic Period (c. 6000- c. 3150 BCE) in the form of Offering Lists and autobiographies; the autobiography was carved on one's tomb along with the Offering List to let the living know what gifts, and in what quantity, the deceased was due regularly in visiting the grave. Since the dead were thought to live on after their bodies had failed, regular offerings at graves were an important consideration; the dead still had to eat and drink even if they no longer held a physical form. From the Offering List came the Prayer for Offerings, a standard literary work which would replace the Offering List, and from the autobiographies grew the Pyramid Texts which were accounts of a king's reign and his successful journey to the afterlife; both these developments took place during the period of the Old Kingdom (c. 2613-c.2181 BCE). These texts were written in hieroglyphics ("sacred carvings") a writing system combining phonograms (symbols which represent sound), logograms (symbols representing words), and ideograms (symbols which represent meaning or sense). Hieroglyphic writing was extremely labor intensive and so another script grew up beside it known as hieratic ("sacred writings") which was faster to work with and easier to use. Hieratic was based on hieroglyphic script and relied on the same principles but was less formal and precise. Hieroglyphic script was written with particular care for the aesthetic beauty of the arrangement of the symbols; hieratic script was used to relay information quickly and easily. In c. 700 BCE hieratic was replaced by demotic script ("popular writing") which continued in use until the rise of Christianity in Egypt and the adoption of Coptic script c. 4th century CE. Most of Egyptian literature was written in hieroglyphics or hieratic script; hieroglyphics were used on monuments such as tombs, obelisks, stele, and temples while hieratic script was used in writing on papyrus scrolls and ceramic pots. Although hieratic, and later demotic and Coptic, scripts became the common writing system of the educated and literate, hieroglyphics remained in use throughout Egypt's history for monumental structures until it was forgotten during the early Christian period. Although the definition of "Egyptian Literature" includes many different types of writing, for the present purposes attention will mostly be paid to standard literary works such as stories, legends, myths, and personal essays; other kinds or work will be mentioned when they are particularly significant. Egyptian history, and so literature, spans centuries and fills volumes of books; a single article cannot hope to treat of the subject fairly in attempting to cover the wide range
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Naguib Mahfouz was a prolific Egyptian writer,who was awarded the 1988 Nobel Prize for Literature. With a career spanning seventy years, Mahfouz published thirty-four novels, over 350 short stories, five plays and numerous film scripts. His works have had a phenomenal impact on Egyptian literary culture and as a result, many have been made into Egyptian and foreign films. His most notable works include: The Cairo Trilogy, Heart of the Night, Love in the Rain and Cairo Modern.
– An Egyptian writer of plays, short stories, and novels. Like many Egyptian writers, Idris started his career in a totally different profession; he originally trained to be a doctor, studying at the University of Cairo. His most famous work was a play called Al-Farafeer which was based upon the paradoxical roles of the two main characters: the Master and the ‘Farfour’ [poor layman]. Idris wrote regular features for Egypt’s daily newspaper Al-Ahram and was nominated several times for the Nobel Prize for Literature. In 1997 Idris was awarded the Naguib Mahfouz Medal for Literature for his novel City of Love and Ashes. His short stories include: The Cheapest Nights, The Hero and Dregs of the City. He also wrote a number of plays and novels, including The Sin and Farahat’s Republic.
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– Tawfiq al-Hakim was a Egyptian writer born in Alexandria, Egypt. He remains one of the pioneering figures of modern Arabic literature and has often been described as the founder of an entire literary tradition, particularly within the world of Arab theatre. His 1956 play Death Song was the basis of the opera Sumeida’s Song by Mohammed Fairouz. Al-Hakim’s plays include: A Bullet in the Heart, Leaving Paradise and The People of the Cave.
– An Egyptian writer and novelist; born to a middle-class family in Cairo, Haqqi trained originally as a lawyer at the Cairo School of Law. Like many other Egyptian writers, he spent the majority of his life working as a civil servant. This worked as a supplement to a somewhat mediocre literary income. Haqqi eventually succeeded in becoming adviser to the National Library of Egypt. Coming late to a literary career, Haqqi was editor of the literary magazine AlMajalla from 1961 to 1971. He published a number of collections of short stories, one novel (Umm Hashem’s Lamp), and numerous articles. Titles include: The Mother of the Helpless, The Dawn of the Egyptian Novel and Antar and Juliet.
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– Taha Hussein is said to be one of the most influential 20th century Egyptian writers and intellectuals, being awarded the nickname: ‘Dean of Arabic Literature’ Hussein was deemed a figurehead for the Arab Renaissance in literature, and contributed hugely to the modernist movement in the Arab World. Hussein studied in the college of Arts — focusing on Religion and Arabic literature at Al-Azhar University. He went through most of his life without his sight, the tragic result of a procedure performed by an unskilled practitioner. In spite of this, Hussein maintained his ambitions as a writer, producing works such as: Wednesday Talk, A Man of Letters and The Call of the Curlew.
– An Egyptian writer, journalist, and novelist, Abdel Quddous also worked as an editor for Al Akhbar and Al-Ahram newspapers. Many of his novels have been adapted into films, flowing very much into mainstream Egyptian media and culture. The child of an Egyptian theatre and film actor, Mohamed Abdel Quddous, Abdul Quddous was encouraged to pursue a career in law, rather than following in his father’s footsteps. Pursue a career in law he did, but in 1944, he started writing film scripts, short stories, and novels, and subsequently left his law career to focus on his literature. Ihsan Abdel Quddous received his first award for writing the novel My Blood, My Tears, My Smile in 1973. He received a Best Screenplay award for his novel The Bullet is Still in my Pocket two years later. Adding to his literary prestige, Former Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser awarded Adel Quddous with an Order of Merit of the First Class.
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’ In the name of God, the most compassionate, the most merciful. Thanks be to Allah, prayers and peace be upon the messenger of Allah. Egyptian people, you who today are rejoicing and celebrating the feast of democracy in Egypt, you who are standing in squares, in the Tahrir Square and in all the squares of Egypt, my beloved ones, my family and people, my brethren and my sons, who are looking forward to the future, you who want good, rebirth, development, stability, safety and security for our country of Egypt. My beloved ones, I address you thanks to God Almighty. We all thank God for reaching this historic moment, this moment which represents a landmark that has been written with the hands and wills of the Egyptians, their blood, tears and sacrifices, this moment, which we are all shaping with these sacrifices. I would not have talked to you today as the first president elected by the free will of Egyptians in the first presidential elections after the 25 January revolution, I would not have been here today with you now amid this sweeping joy, which is sweeping all corners of our beloved homeland, I would not have been here but for God's help and these sacrifices, the precious blood of our honorable martyrs and our great injured men… I promise them once again that this precious blood will not go in vain. Salute to the great Egyptian people, the best soldiers on earth, to the Armed Forces, to all its sons wherever they are, pure salutations from my heart to them and I bear them love that nobody knows except for God Almighty. I love them and appreciate their role and show keenness to strengthen them and keep them and this prestigious organization [the army] that we all love and appreciate. And for the honourable policemen, the policemen who are my brothers and sons, some of whom mistakenly believe that I might feel less appreciation for them and that is wrong. Whoever commits a crime is punished according to the law. As for the honest policemen, who are the majority of my brothers and sons among policemen in Egypt, for those, I'm obliged to salute them because they have a big role to play in the future to maintain safety and security inside the homeland.
Due salutations, too, to all Egyptian judges, who supervised all the elections after the revolution and even to those who have not supervised the elections. All judges in Egypt should be appreciated, respected and loved, and they are the third authority that should always keep its head high, remain independent, possess its own will and work separately from the executive
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 96 power, and my responsibility in the future is to make sure that judges truly and genuinely work separately from the executive and legislative powers… Muslims and Christians alike, men and women, the old and the elderly and the young men, mothers and fathers, peasants and workers, public servants, teachers, university professors, businessmen, public servants, workers in the Public Enterprise sector and the government departments and the private sector, those who work in all state institutions, merchants, drivers, bus, trains, taxis, tok-tok cars, they are all my people, those who have professions, owners of small kiosks, owners of small shops, vendors selling goods on road pavements, the elderly, the students who go to public and private schools, those who have professions, everyone, I hope I don't ever forget anyone. I address you all on this remarkable day in which I was chosen, thanks to Allah and your will, president for all Egyptians, and will stand at an equal distance from all Egyptians, everyone has his own value and standing, nobody is dealt with differently except on the basis of their giving to his country and the amount of respect they show for the constitution and law… Egypt, which impressed the world with the queues of its voters, needs now to close ranks, unite the word, so that the patient, great Egyptian people can reap the fruit of their sacrifices in a better life, achieve social justice, freedom and human dignity, which are the basic slogans or the main goals that the throats of the revolutionaries kept repeating in all Egyptian squares on the 25th of January 2011, and which revolutionaries still repeat loudly in all the squares of the revolution, which is still continuing. The revolution will continue until all its objectives are achieved. Together, we complete this march. The people have been patient, the Egyptian people have been patient and since then suffered disease, hunger, injustice, oppression, marginalization, the rigging of will and the rigging of elections. We used to look around in the world and say: when will Egypt, the Egyptian people, be the source of power? Today, you are the source of power as the world can see in this epic, in this great system through which we would take Egypt to a better future, god willing… Egypt is for all Egyptians, all of us are equals in terms of rights...We are all Egyptians no matter what our viewpoints, we are all nationalists no matter what our parties and trends. We are all faithful to the revolution and to the blood of martyrs. There is no place for the language of collusion and there is no place for accusing each other of treachery…I invite you to prepare for a comprehensive project of rebirth, for the Egyptian rebirth, with the hands of all Egyptians. We Egyptians, Muslims and Christians, we Egyptians, Muslims and Christians, are advocates of civilization and construction… I am intent with your help to build a new Egypt, a national country, a constitutional, democratic, modern country, and all my time will be dedicated to this big project which is based on our identity and reference. I will work hard with all of you to maintain Egypt's national security, with all its dimensions, whether at Arab, African, regional or international levels. We will maintain international charters and conventions. We came to the world with a message of peace. We will maintain international charters and conventions and the commitments and agreements Egypt has signed with the world. We will also work to make the Egyptian system of ethics, and its civilizational identity, in addition to human values particularly in freedoms, respect for human rights, maintaining rights of women
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 97 and children and abrogating all sorts of discrimination. We will establish, God willing, balanced relations with all world powers, we will establish balanced relations between us and other world countries based on common interests and mutual respect and benefits to all sides. We will not allow ourselves to interfere in the internal affairs of any country in the same way that we will not allow any interference in our affairs and hence maintain our national sovereignty and the borders of the Egyptian state. Let everybody knows that Egypt's decision is made inside it, by the will of its sons, let everybody know that Egypt by our call for peace with all the world is capable by its people, men, people, armed forces, great history, of defending itself and preventing any aggression or thoughts of aggression against it or against its sons in any part of this world… While we all are celebrating and rejoicing with this great democracy, with these elections, with the victory of the nation's will in the way that you are celebrating now. I reiterate what I have said before that I will not betray Allah in you, would not betray Allah in you and would not disobey Him in my country. I set before my eyes God's saying: And guard yourselves against a day in which ye will be brought back to Allah. Then every soul will be paid in full that which it hath earned, and they will not be wronged. Repeat with me my beloved ones, with our will, our unity, our love for each other, we can shape the decent future for all of us. Some might not see that from outside the homeland or feel it is difficult for us to achieve that out of sympathy for us or for other reasons, however, we, God willing, can go ahead along this path to achieve a better future.
Allah guideth us all to the best of ways. My beloved ones, some see this, but we see it together close, God willing. Tomorrow is very soon. And Allah was predominant in His career, but most of mankind know not (Quranic verse). Peace and God's blessings be upon you.
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Name:_____________________________________________________________ Course & Year_____________________________________________________
1. Use the Historical and Biographical Criticism upon analyzing the Speech of Mohamed Morsi.
(The space provided below is for comments and feedbacks.)
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a. Critique the text, “The Stain” through the use of Sociological criticism b. Critique 15 stanzas of the, “The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam” through the use of Deconstructionist Criticism
The whole chapter will introduce you the qualities and characteristics of literature in Iran. It also touches the historical background of their literature. It has some of its finest writers and their outstanding literary pieces- stories and poems.
A fairly extensive prose literature, mainly of a narrative, anecdotal, and moralizing kind also flourished, but it is overshadowed by poetry in terms of quality and quantity alike. In fact, poetry is the art par excellence of Persia, and her salient cultural achievement. Despite their considerable accomplishments in painting, pottery, textiles, and architecture, in no other field have the Persians succeeded in achieving the same degree of eminence. Whereas the scope of the other arts remained limited, poetry developed into a vehicle for the most refined thoughts and the deepest sentiments. Contemplative and passionate at the same time, poetry speaks the language of the Persian heart, mind, and soul, fully reflecting the Persian world view and life experience.
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The literatures of Persia generally tend to be descriptive rather than dramatic, expressionistic rather than naturalistic, organic rather than architectural. This does not mean that Iranian literatures lack dramatic or well-constructed stories. The Shah-nama contains some powerful stories with considerable dramatic effect. The episodes of Rostam and Sohrab, Siyavosh and Sudaba, and Rostam and Esfandiyar, are not only effective in themselves, but are also told with commendable structural cohesion - as are a number of events reported by the eleventh-century historian Bayhaqi. From their Persian renditions, it is clear that the Middle Persian historical novels based on the lives of Mazdak and Bahram Chobin were dramatic and well-constructed. One need only refer to the epigrammatic quatrains of Omar Khayyam and his imitators to show that dramatic technique was not alien to Persian literary taste. Many writers and poets excelled in driving a point home effectively by the judicious use of contrast, emphasis, paradox, and irony, but most of all by a fitting illustration (which is frequently used in Persian didactic literature to dramatize an abstract point or dictum). And yet it is the creation of moods and effects and the description of scenes and sentiments that have remained the chief concerns of the writers and poets of Persia. Literary constructions of an architectural nature, where all details are subordinated to the requirements of an overriding theme or idea, have seldom been the compelling aim of Iranian literary works. Structural frames as, they are understood in the West, with dramatic tension resulting from their development of characters and their contrived interaction do not preoccupy the Persian literary mind. Rather than following a planned development from initial premises to climax and resolution, the Persian writers allow themselves to explore, often at a leisurely pace, the scenes and details that excite their own imagination, and to share these with the reader. This, unfocused, meandering type of literary construction finds its supreme example in Rumi's Mathnavi, where mystical ideas and preachings are illustrated by stories within stories, with no clear structure between rambling sermons and philosophical comments. It is also revealing that in the present century, when fiction writing has become popular, it is the short story (mostly descriptive) and not the novel that has attracted the best talents. And in Afghani's Showhar-e Ahu Khanom and Dowlatabadi's Kelidar, two significant post-World War II novels, frequent peregrinations, delight in exploiting the ramifications of their subjects, and branching off into side alleys are typical of the same centrifugal tendency that we notice in the works of Nezami or Attar. On the other hand, Persian poets and writers are proven masters of vignettes, aphorisms, pithy remarks, proverbial sayings, felicitous formulations, pregnant allusions, illustrative anecdotes, and imaginative short descriptions; almost all of these techniques are exemplified in the pages of the most celebrated Persian prose work, Sadi's Golestan (The rose garden), composed in the thirteenth century. Persian and Middle Persian possess a rich store of wisdom literature, consisting mainly of detached or loosely connected moral maxims and ethical observations from which one can hardly deduce a coherent system of ethical philosophy. It is symptomatic of the Persian mode of thinking and literary predilection that the true unit of Persian poetry is the line (distich or bayt). The best Persian poets often succeed in expressing profound thoughts or impassioned sentiments within the confines of a single couplet.
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A third feature of Persian literature is its taste for the use of rhetorical devices and ornament. It has often been observed that Persian art has a marked decorative tendency. This is clearly seen in the visual arts: architecture, book illustration, wall painting, bookbinding, calligraphy, and textiles, as well as in music. In modern Persian criticism this tendency, an integral part of artistic expression in Persian letters, has been somewhat deprecated, partly as a result of changes in literary values and partly because the critics have usually focused on excessive examples. Such a view, however, ignores the standards of taste prevailing in medieval Persia and its spheres of cultural influence, and it misses, as well, the true nature and function of ornament in Persian literature. Far from being a mere addition or embellishment, ornament is a vital element of literary expression. It is one of the major devices writers or poets use to display their ingenuity, imparting elegance and sophistication to their products, and rousing the reader's admiration. If in treatises on rhetoric the embellishing devices occupy such a conspicuous place, it is because they were seen not as marginal but rather as essential parts of the craft. In early Persian poetry, ornament is minimal, partly as a result of the poetry's youth and partly because it was modeled on Sassanian poetry. In pre-Islamic Persia, as we have seen, poetry and music went hand in hand, and the minstrels usually sang their poems to the accompaniment of instruments. Poetry, to judge by our few remaining examples, was fairly simple in composition since the music was there to help deliver its emotional impact. Many early Persian poems were, in fact, conceived as songs and were sung by the poet or a ravi (Arabic rawi, reciter) as instanced by Rudaki's famous poem on Bukhara, which reportedly made his patron king abandon Herat and rush to his capital without even taking time to put on his riding boots. It was not long, however, before poetry achieved a totally separate existence from music and its own tradition was established with a repertory of conventional themes, motifs, and imagery. Since the free play of imagination was somewhat limited by the restraints of this tradition, embellishment and decoration became a primary means of exhibiting literary dexterity and of impressing one's audience. Stylistic mastery and rhetorical craftsmanship gradually became a hallmark of good writing. Even the writers of informative prose who mastered the craft were considered practitioners of literary art.
A fourth feature of Persian literary tradition is the conventionality of its themes and imagery. The major themes and forms of Persian poetry were set in the first century of its appearance; they are seen as early as the works of Rudaki (d. 940-41). Furthermore, the different genres of Persian poetry generally correspond to specific forms: the qasida (ode), a long mono-rhyme, for panegyrics; the ghazal, a shorter mono-rhyme of about seven to fourteen lines, for lyrics; the mathnavi or couplet, for narrative themes; the roba'i or quatrain for epigrammatic poems; and the qet'a (piece or fragment) for casual themes. These forms and their corresponding genres have remained fairly constant for nearly a thousand years.
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 102 Traditional poets have always composed their works within the requirements of formal canons and thematic and imagistic conventions. If this framework has made the poet's task of achieving originality more difficult, it has also made it more impressive once accomplished. Such originality is often achieved not by deviating from the norm but by improving upon it: development in Persian literature consists mostly of the refinement of existing techniques, not bold or unsettling innovation. Since the merit of Persian literature rests largely on its poetry, we shall address ourselves to it in more detail. We may begin with a brief sketch of the periods and styles of Persian poetry and then consider its development....
Ahmad Hassanzadeh
As soon as the child stepped into the yard he saw the oil stain. He told himself: Pitch. He thought that the asphalt from the roof had melted in the heat, and it had drained down the drain. He wiped it with his father’s dirty shoe wax cloth. He opened the door to the yard and looked into the alley. The alley was steep and it arched at the end. You couldn’t see the main street. The alley was quiet. He closed the door and came back to the yard and looked at the scooter that was spread in the middle of the yard. It was getting dark. He stayed in the yard till the night came. He scratched his head and came inside. He had made a decision to fix his scooter. This time, he must go down the slope of the alley faster than other kids.
In the morning when he came to the yard he saw the black stain again. He looked at the roof and the drain and did not see any pitch. He told himself: Oil, and got the dirty cloth from the old Buick’s garage He stood above the stain and stared at it. From the kitchen he heard his father moan and cough several dry, disappointing hacks. He wiped the stain. But the black oil left a mark on the mosaic. Again he heard his father cough. The sound of the cough would
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 103 come out of his father’s mouth, would cross the tunnel-like hall of the kitchen, would pass his room, would also put the guest room behind it. Behind the hall it would wait a little, then it would find a slit and pull itself through with difficulty and reach the boy’s ears. He always imagined the sound of the cough in this way. He liked doing that. He inspected the scooter: A thin layer of wood, width of his bottom, and four metal wheels with ball bearings in the belly of the wheels. He filed the wood, nailed a torn sheet on top of it and sat on it. Now the seat was smooth, without knots, and soft. But the movement of the wheels was still slow, noisy, and uneven.
The next day when in the garage looking for ball bearings, he saw another black stain three times the size of the last stain. It looked bad to the eyes. He took the cloth and wiped it. This time it did not leave a greasy mark. There was only a white mark left. No trace of the mosaic’s design. A white stain could be seen among the small brown squares.
The next day he first heard the hacking coughs of father, then he heard the sound of rubbing of mother’s small tea glass on the saucer. He liked this sound too, like the sound of the wheels of the scooter on the asphalt surface. Mother was drinking her first tea in the morning. Then he went to the yard. Across from him on the wall that backed the guest room, the size of three or four hands, he saw another stain. He scratched the back of his neck and turned to look at the swallows that sat on electrical wires beak to beak. They were quiet, but the child could hear their chaos. He liked this noise too. The stain was high up. He went back to the garage and with difficulty dragged a stool under the stain and climbed it. Now the stain waved in front of his eyes. He told himself: It is like an eel. He took out the cloth and this time with more difficulty and effort, wiped the stain from the wall. When he was finished, he could see a hole the size of the stain on the wall. He said to himself: It is like a flounder. He could see part of the guest room and a part of the hall’s wall. He could see the picture frame on same level as his eyes. In the picture his father was wearing a felt hat. He had a kamarband around the waist and a cape on his shoulders. His eyebrows were knotted, but his mouth was open in a smile and he was holding his bride’s hand in his hand. Mother with an innocent shame had her head down and was looking for some unknown thing on the ground.
The next day the stains were bigger and bigger. He wiped another stain. He didn’t have the patience for the rest. He went to the middle of the yard, put his foot on the scooter and moved it. It moved with difficulty. It was not smooth yet. This way he would lose. He would reach the end of the slope later than other kids. He went back to the garage and from the bottom of a box of screws and bolts, took out a grease tin.
When he came out of the garage, he noticed there was no trace of the hall wall. It was as if it had melted and drained into the earth. The sitting room wall had also half melted. He could see his bed cloth in the corner of the room. Next to the bed cloth, his science and math books were scattered on the floor. He scratched the back of his neck and stared at the disappeared walls. But in a moment he forgot about it and went to grease his scooter’s wheels.
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 104 The next morning he woke up to the sun shining directly in his eyes. The sound of father’s coughs were milder than other days. The sound of mother’s tea glass on the saucer could be heard gently. It was not necessary to leave the room, enter the hall and go towards the door to enter the yard. The yard was right in front of his eyes. He went to his scooter and knees folded sat on it, put his hands on the ground and pushed backwards. The scooter went forward a meter or two, then it made a noise and stopped. Upset, he leaned on the wall and looked at the front of the house. The stain had covered all the front wall of the house. He took the stool and started cleaning the big stain. It took till sunset to clean it.
Nighttime, before sleep, he looked at the sky. A bunch of stars made the night into polka dots. He told himself: like mother’s polka dot chaddor. He tried to create a relation between several stars to create a shape, then he started counting the stars. There were so many of them that he did not know when he fell asleep.
The next day, the sun was shining directly. As usual there was no sign of rain. He went out and took his scooter and stared at the kitchen wall. He heard father’s dry cough and mother’s tea glass and saucer. He looked at the garage. There was a bigger stain covering the wall of the kitchen, garage, and the storage. He sat knees folded on the scooter and moved it. It made a sound and moved slower than before. He went to the garage and took the grease tin and put it on the scooter, then he took the cloth and started to wipe the stain spread on the garage.
At night he slept a little earlier. In the morning the air was a little cooler than the day before. He touched his pants and went to the bathroom. When he came back out, there was no trace of the house. Clean, clean. Not his room, nor the hall nor the kitchen nor the garage. He told himself: like the sea. In the distance, where before he could not see, he now could see the flames of oil wells. He could feel their heat. He told himself: Like a giraffe’s neck. He could not see any trace of the house, but could hear father’s moans and coughs and the rubbing of mother’s tea glass against saucer. His eyes widened and for a few moments stared at the house’s empty space. No use. There was no trace of the past. He scratched the back of his neck. He bent and picked up his scooter and left the house. He told himself: This time, I will go down the hill with easy conscience; I will leave all the kids behind. He looked from the door onto the street. On the slope, there was a stain the size of a hand. For a few seconds he stared at the stain. He scratched the back of his neck longer than usual. Then he put the scooter down, went back to the yard to grab the cloth to wipe the stain.
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Sohrab Sepehri Life's a pleasant tradition. Life's wing is as vast as death. Life's a jump the size of love. Life's not something, we put on the mantel of habit and forget. Paintings by: Sohrab Sepehri It does not matter where I am. The sky is always mine. Windows, ideas, air, love, earth, all mine. Why does it matter if sometimes, the mushrooms of nostalgia grow? Let's take off our clothes. Water is just a foot away. Let's have a basket and fill it up with all the greens and all the reds. We are not to comprehend; the secret of roses, but maybe swimming in the incantation of roses. Or may be looking for the song of truth between the morning glory, and the century.
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translated by Edward Fitzgerald Trfanslated by Edward Fitzgerald
I.
Awake! for Morning in the Bowl of Night Has flung the Stone that puts the Stars to Flight: And Lo! the Hunter of the East has caught The Sultan’s Turret in a Noose of Light. [3] II. Dreaming when Dawn’s Left Hand was in the Sky I heard a Voice within the Tavern cry, "Awake, my Little ones, and fill the Cup Before Life’s Liquor in its Cup be dry." [4] III. And, as the Cock crew, those who stood before The Tavern shouted—"Open then the Door. You know how little while we have to stay, And, once departed, may return no more." IV. Now the New Year reviving old Desires, The thoughtful Soul to Solitude retires, Where the WHITE HAND OF MOSES on the Bough Puts out, and Jesus from the Ground suspires. [5] V. Iram indeed is gone with all its Rose, And Jamshyd’s Sev’n-ring’d Cup where no one knows; But still the Vine her ancient Ruby yields, And still a Garden by the Water blows. [6] VI. And David’s Lips are lock’t; but in divine High piping Pelevi, with "Wine! Wine! Wine! Red Wine!"—the Nightingale cries to the Rose That yellow Cheek of hers to’incarnadine. [7] VII. Come, fill the Cup, and in the Fire of Spring The Winter Garment of Repentance fling: The Bird of Time has but a little way
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 107 To fly—and Lo! the Bird is on the Wing. VIII. And look—a thousand Blossoms with the Day Woke—and a thousand scatter’d into Clay: And this first Summer Month that brings the Rose Shall take Jamshyd and Kaikobad away. IX. But come with old Khayyam, and leave the Lot Of Kaikobad and Kaikhosru forgot: Let Rustum lay about him as he will, Or Hatim Tai cry Supper—heed them not. [8] X. With me along some Strip of Herbage strown That just divides the desert from the sown, Where name of Slave and Sultan scarce is known, And pity Sultan Mahmud on his Throne. XI. Here with a Loaf of Bread beneath the Bough, A Flask of Wine, a Book of Verse—and Thou Beside me singing in the Wilderness— And Wilderness is Paradise enow. XII. "How sweet is mortal Sovranty!"—think some: Others—"How blest the Paradise to come!" Ah, take the Cash in hand and waive the Rest; Oh, the brave Music of a distant Drum! [9] XIII. Look to the Rose that blows about us—"Lo, Laughing," she says, "into the World I blow: At once the silken Tassel of my Purse Tear, and its Treasure on the Garden throw." XIV. The Worldly Hope men set their Hearts upon Turns Ashes—or it prospers; and anon, Like Snow upon the Desert’s dusty Face Lighting a little Hour or two—is gone. [10] XV. And those who husbanded the Golden Grain, And those who flung it to the Winds like Rain, Alike to no such aureate Earth are turn’d As, buried once, Men want dug up again. XVI. Think, in this batter’d Caravanserai Whose Doorways are alternate Night and Day, How Sultan after Sultan with his Pomp Abode his Hour or two, and went his way.
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 108 XVII. They say the Lion and the Lizard keep The Courts where Jamshyd gloried and drank deep: And Bahram, that great Hunter—the Wild Ass Stamps o’er his Head, and he lies fast asleep. [11] XVIII. I sometimes think that never blows so red The Rose as where some buried Caesar bled; That every Hyacinth the Garden wears Dropt in its Lap from some once lovely Head. XIX. And this delightful Herb whose tender Green Fledges the River’s Lip on which we lean— Ah, lean upon it lightly! for who knows From what once lovely Lip it springs unseen! XX. Ah! my Beloved, fill the Cup that clears TO-DAY of past Regrets and future FearsTo-morrow?—Why, To-morrow I may be Myself with Yesterday’s Sev’n Thousand Years. [12] XXI. Lo! some we loved, the loveliest and the best That Time and Fate of all their Vintage prest, Have drunk their Cup a Round or two before, And one by one crept silently to Rest. XXII. And we, that now make merry in the Room They left, and Summer dresses in new Bloom, Ourselves must we beneath the Couch of Earth Descend, ourselves to make a Couch—for whom? XXIII. Ah, make the most of what we yet may spend, Before we too into the Dust Descend; Dust into Dust, and under Dust, to lie, Sans Wine, sans Song, sans Singer and—sans End! XXIV. Alike for those who for TO-DAY prepare, And those that after a TO-MORROW stare, A Muezzin from the Tower of Darkness cries "Fools! your Reward is neither Here nor There." XXV. Why, all the Saints and Sages who discuss’d Of the Two Worlds so learnedly, are thrust Like foolish Prophets forth; their Words to Scorn Are scatter’d, and their Mouths are stopt with Dust. XXVI. Oh, come with old Khayyam, and leave the Wise
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 109 To talk; one thing is certain, that Life flies; One thing is certain, and the Rest is Lies; The Flower that once has blown for ever dies. XXVII. Myself when young did eagerly frequent Doctor and Saint, and heard great Argument About it and about: but evermore Came out by the same Door as in I went. XXVIII. With them the Seed of Wisdom did I sow, And with my own hand labour’d it to grow: And this was all the Harvest that I reap’d— "I came like Water, and like Wind I go." XXIX. Into this Universe, and why not knowing, Nor whence, like Water willy-nilly flowing: And out of it, as Wind along the Waste, I know not whither, willy-nilly blowing. XXX. What, without asking, hither hurried whence? And, without asking, whither hurried hence! Another and another Cup to drown The Memory of this Impertinence! XXXI. Up from Earth’s Centre through the seventh Gate I rose, and on the Throne of Saturn sate, And many Knots unravel’d by the Road; But not the Knot of Human Death and Fate. XXXII. There was a Door to which I found no Key: There was a Veil past which I could not see: Some little Talk awhile of ME and THEE There seemed—and then no more of THEE and ME. [13] XXXIII. Then to the rolling Heav’n itself I cried, Asking, "What Lamp had Destiny to guide Her little Children stumbling in the Dark?" And—"A blind understanding!" Heav’n replied. XXXIV. Then to this earthen Bowl did I adjourn My Lip the secret Well of Life to learn: And Lip to Lip it murmur’d—"While you live, Drink!—for once dead you never shall return." XXXV. I think the Vessel, that with fugitive Articulation answer’d, once did live, And merry-make; and the cold Lip I kiss’d
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 110 How many Kisses might it take—and give. XXXVI. For in the Market-place, one Dusk of Day, I watch’d the Potter thumping his wet Clay: And with its all obliterated Tongue It murmur’d—"Gently, Brother, gently, pray!" [14] XXXVII. Ah, fill the Cup:—what boots it to repeat How Time is slipping underneath our Feet: Unborn TO-MORROW and dead YESTERDAY, Why fret about them if TO-DAY be sweet! XXXVIII. One Moment in Annihilation’s Waste, One moment, of the Well of Life to taste— The Stars are setting, and the Caravan Starts for the dawn of Nothing—Oh, make haste! XXXIX. How long, how long, in infinite Pursuit Of This and That endeavour and dispute? Better be merry with the fruitful Grape Than sadden after none, or bitter, Fruit. XL. You know, my Friends, how long since in my House For a new Marriage I did make Carouse: Divorced old barren Reason from my Bed, And took the Daughter of the Vine to Spouse. XLI. For "IS" and "IS-NOT" though with Rule and Line, And, "UP-AND-DOWN" without, I could define, I yet in all I only cared to know, Was never deep in anything but—Wine. [15] XLII. And lately, by the Tavern Door agape, Came stealing through the Dusk an Angel Shape, Bearing a vessel on his Shoulder; and He bid me taste of it; and ’twas—the Grape! XLIII. The Grape that can with Logic absolute The Two-and-Seventy jarring Sects confute: The subtle Alchemist that in a Trice Life’s leaden Metal into Gold transmute. [16] XLIV. The mighty Mahmud, the victorious Lord, That all the misbelieving and black Horde Of Fears and Sorrows that infest the Soul Scatters and slays with his enchanted Sword. [17]
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 111 XLV. But leave the Wise to wrangle, and with me The Quarrel of the Universe let be: And, in some corner of the Hubbub coucht, Make Game of that which makes as much of Thee. XLVI. For in and out, above, about, below, ’Tis nothing but a Magic Shadow-show, Play’d in a Box whose Candle is the Sun, Round which we Phantom Figures come and go. [18] XLVII. And if the Wine you drink, the Lip you press, End in the Nothing all Things end in—YesThen fancy while Thou art, Thou art but what Thou shalt be—Nothing—Thou shalt not be less. XLVIII. While the Rose blows along the River Brink, With old Khayyam the Ruby Vintage drink: And when the Angel with his darker Draught Draws up to thee—take that, and do not shrink. [19] XLVIX. ’Tis all a Chequer-board of Nights and Days Where Destiny with Men for Pieces plays: Hither and thither moves, and mates, and slays, And one by one back in the Closet lays. L. The Ball no Question makes of Ayes and Noes, But Right or Left as strikes the Player goes; And He that toss’d Thee down into the Field, He knows about it all—HE knows—HE knows! [20] LI. The Moving Finger writes; and, having writ, Moves on: nor all thy Piety nor Wit Shall lure it back to cancel half a Line, Nor all thy Tears wash out a Word of it. LII. And that inverted Bowl we call The Sky, Whereunder crawling coop’t we live and die, Lift not thy hands to IT for help—for It Rolls impotently on as Thou or I. LIII. With Earth’s first Clay They did the Last Man’s knead, And then of the Last Harvest sow’d the Seed: Yea, the first Morning of Creation wrote What the Last Dawn of Reckoning shall read. LIV. I tell Thee this—When, starting from the Goal,
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 112 Over the shoulders of the flaming Foal Of Heav’n Parwin and Mushtari they flung, In my predestin’d Plot of Dust and Soul. [21] LV. The Vine had struck a Fibre; which about It clings my Being—let the Sufi flout; Of my Base Metal may be filed a Key, That shall unlock the Door he howls without. LVI. And this I know: whether the one True Light, Kindle to Love, or Wrath consume me quite, One Glimpse of It within the Tavern caught Better than in the Temple lost outright. LVII. Oh Thou who didst with Pitfall and with Gin Beset the Road I was to wander in, Thou wilt not with Predestination round Enmesh me, and impute my Fall to Sin? LVIII. Oh Thou, who Man of baser Earth didst make, And who with Eden didst devise the Snake; For all the Sin wherewith the Face of Man Is blacken’d, Man’s Forgiveness give—and take! LIX. Listen again. One Evening at the Close Of Ramazan, ere the better Moon arose, In that old Potter’s Shop I stood alone With the clay Population round in Rows. LX. And strange to tell, among that Earthen Lot Some could articulate, while others not: And suddenly one more impatient cried— "Who is the Potter, pray, and who the Pot?" [22] LXI. Then said another—"Surely not in vain My substance from the common Earth was ta’en, That He who subtly wrought me into Shape Should stamp me back to common Earth again." LXII. Another said—"Why, ne’er a peevish Boy Would break the Bowl from which he drank in Joy; Shall He that made the Vessel in pure Love And Fansy, in an after Rage destroy!" LXIII. None answer’d this; but after Silence spake A Vessel of a more ungainly Make: "They sneer at me for leaning all awry;
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 113 What? did the Hand then of the Potter shake?" LXIV. Said one—"Folks of a surly Tapster tell, And daub his Visage with the Smoke of Hell; They talk of some strict Testing of us—Pish! He’s a Good Fellow, and ’twill all be well." LXV. Then said another with a long-drawn Sigh, "My Clay with long oblivion is gone dry: But, fill me with the old familiar Juice, Methinks I might recover by-and-bye!" LXVI. So, while the Vessels one by one were speaking, One spied the little Crescent all were seeking: And then they jogg’d each other, "Brother! Brother! Hark to the Porter’s Shoulder-knot a-creaking!" [23] LXVII. Ah, with the Grape my fading Life provide, And wash my Body whence the life has died, And in a Winding sheet of Vineleaf wrapt, So bury me by some sweet Gardenside. LXVIII. That ev’n my buried Ashes such a Snare Of Perfume shall fling up into the Air, As not a True Believer passing by But shall be overtaken unaware. LXIX. Indeed, the Idols I have loved so long Have done my Credit in Men’s Eye much wrong: Have drown’d my Honour in a shallow Cup, And sold my Reputation for a Song. LXX. Indeed, indeed, Repentance oft before I swore—but was I sober when I swore? And then and then came Spring, and Rose-in-hand My thread-bare Penitence a-pieces tore. LXXI. And much as Wine has play’d the Infidel, And robb’d me of my Robe of Honour—well, I often wonder what the Vintners buy One half so precious as the Goods they sell. LXXII. Alas, that Spring should vanish with the Rose! That Youth’s sweet-scented Manuscript should close! The Nightingale that in the Branches sang, Ah, whence, and whither flown again, who knows!
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 114 LXXIII. Ah, Love! could thou and I with Fate conspire To grasp this sorry Scheme of Things entire, Would not we shatter it to bits—and then Re-mould it nearer to the Heart’s Desire! LXXIV. Ah, Moon of my Delight who know’st no wane, The Moon of Heav’n is rising once again: How oft hereafter rising shall she look Through this same Garden after me—in vain! LXXV. And when Thyself with shining Foot shall pass Among the Guests Star-scatter’d on The Grass, And in Thy joyous Errand reach the Spot Where I made one—turn down an empty Glass!
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Name:_____________________________________________________________ Course & Year_____________________________________________________
Make the following tasks below: a. Use the Sociological Criticism upon analyzing the literary text, “The Stain”.
b. Choose 15 stanzas of the text, “The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam and use the Deconstructionist Criticism upon analyzing the literary piece.
(The space provided below is for comments and feedbacks.)
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a. Explain the role of ‘Koran’ for the Arabian community b. Critique one literary text from the, “The Thousand and One Nights”
This chapter helps you know more about Arabic literature. Its distinct features and the very root of its literature and history history. It also brings you to their popular masterpiece, The Thousand and One Nights.
Arabic literature Arabic literature, literary works written in the Arabic language. The great body of Arabic literature includes works by Arabic speaking Turks, Persians, Syrians, Egyptians, Indians, Jews, and other Africans and Asians, as well as the Arabs themselves. The first significant Arabic literature was produced during the medieval golden age of lyric poetry, from the 4th to the 7th cent. The poems are strongly personal qasida, or odes, often very short, with some longer than 100 lines. They treat the life of the tribe and themes of love, fighting, courage, and the chase. The poet speaks directly, not romantically, of nature and the power of God. The qasida survive only through collections, chiefly the Muallaqat , Hamasa , Mufaddaliyat , and Kitab al-Aghani . The most esteemed of these poets are Amru al-Kais , Antara , and Zuhair .
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With the advent of Islam, the Qur'an became the central work of study and recitation. ExtraQur'anic poetry underwent a decline from which it recovered in a far different form. The Qur'an supplanted poetry by becoming the chief object of study of the Muslim world. Poetry regained some prestige under the Umayyads, when al-Akhtal (c.640–c.710) and al-Farazdaq (c.640–732) wrote their lyric works.
Under the Abbasids (750–1258), Hellenic, Syrian, Pahlavi, and Sanskrit works became available in translation, and the Arabic language further developed as a vehicle of science and philosophy. Among the pioneers of Arabic prose were Ibn al-Muqaffa, the translator of the Indian fables of Kalila wa Dimna, and al-Jahiz (d. 868), an influential figure in the establishment of the belles-lettres compendia ( adab ) as a dominant literary theme.
The next great period of Arabic literature was a result of the rise of the new Arabic-Persian culture of Baghdad, the new capital of the Abbasids, in the 8th and 9th cent. Philosophy, mathematics, law, Qur'anic interpretation and criticism, history, and science were cultivated, and the collections of early Arabic poetry were compiled during this period.
At the end of the 8th cent. in Baghdad a group of young poets arose who established a new court poetry. A prominent court poet was Abu Nuwas . Asceticism, not yet developed into Sufism, evolved into a poetic genre with Abu al-Atahiya. Among the most popular of Arabic poets, Mutanabbi (915–65) wrote some of the most complex, and most eloquent, Arabic poems. The poet Hariri sought to combine refinement with dignity of style, and brilliancies with jewels of eloquence. Abu al-Ala al-Maarri was an outstanding Syrian poet of great originality. The greatest mystic poet of the age was Omar Ibn al-Faridh (1181–1235).
The influence of India and Persia is seen in Arabic prose romance, which became the principal literary form. The greatest collection is the Thousand and One Nights . The major writers of historical and geographical works in Arabic include Bukhari , Tabari , Masudi , Ibn Khaldun , Ibn al-Athir (d. 1234), and Ibn Batuta . The foremost Arab theologian was al- Ghazali ; Avicenna , the great physician, wrote on medicine. The central Asian scholar al-Faralsi, wrote fundamental works on philosophical and musical theory. In the field of belles-lettres, essays and epistles of great wit and erudition, known as risalas, were composed on subjects as diverse as science, mysticism, and politics. Chief practitioners of the genre include Ibn al-Muqaffa (d. 757), the unsurpassed al-Jahiz, and Ibn Qutayba (d. 889).
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The Qur'an (in Anglicized form: Koran ) is certainly the greatest literary work in classical Arabic and for all Muslims stands as the definitive word of God (in Arabic: Allah ) spoken to the prophet Muhammad by the angel Gabriel. When reading the Qur'an , you should realize that, for all Muslims, the text you are reading is quite literally the voice of God; because the Qur'an is the direct speech of God in Arabic, translation of the work is seen as blasphemy, as an unforgivable tampering with God's own speech. Nevertheless, the Qur'an has been translated into Turkish and Farsi (the language of Iran) in this century and is recited in these languages in religious services in Turkey and Iran. The Muslim community tolerates this but just barely. For all practical purposes, to be Muslim, then, means almost universally to be able to read and understand classical Arabic, despite what one's native language is [Ed. a Muslim reader noted that many Muslims do not understand the language, but they must only read or say the words correctly].
The recitation began one night in the year 610 A.D. Muhammad was sitting alone in the wilderness near Mecca when the Angel Gabriel appeared to him. The Angel called out to him with the command, "Recite! Recite! Recite!" Muhammad responded "I am not a reader." The angel recited three verses to him and when he awoke he had these verses, as he said, inscribed in his heart. These revelations continued for 10 days. Islamic scholars believe that the first revelation occurred on the night of the 27th day of Ramadan. This night is called the Laylatal-Qadr (Night of Power). And according to the Quran, this is when God determines the course of the world for the following year.1
From that point on, Muhammad believed himself to be a prophet and messenger of God, the last in a line of seven prophets (beginning with Abraham and ending with Jesus Christ, who was prophet number six) and responsible for inscribing the last and most important of God's direct messages to the world, the Arabic Recitation, which is the full name of the work. The people of God, that is, the Jews and the Christians, were going astray; the purpose of the Arabic
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 119 Recitation was to restore God's faithful to the proper path. At different times in Muhammed's life the recitations would come to him; he would then repeat what he had heard and these would be memorized by certain people trained in remembering verses; some of these verses were written down on whatever was at hand. All these writings were collected in the caliphate of 'Uthman and the canonical text was established around 650 A.D. The writings were collected into a group of surah's and ordered according to length (each surah is meant to be a single recitation), though all Muslims also know the chronological order of the recitations.
The Qur'an is organized into separate chapters called surahs. The order of the surahs, however, does not reflect the chronological order of the Quranic verses, nor does the surah structure reflect the nature of the original Quranic revelation. During his lifetime, Muhammad would have individual verses revealed to him; these revelations occurred unexpectedly and in surprising places. Typically, revelation would put Muhammad in a trance-like state. He, and others, would memorize the revealed verses and, under the guidance of Gabriel, Muhammad organized these verses into the existing surahs. The intervention of Gabriel in ordering the various verses in Islamic history is meant to guarantee not only the sanctity of the individual verses, but the religious validity of the organization of these verses in the Qur'an.
The Qur'an was an oral text throughout the lifetime of Muhammad; it was also a fluid text. The complete text resided only in the memories of Muahmmad and his followers. As he added verses and reorganized the text, his followers would rememorize the text in the light of the additions or edits. This means that the Qur'an was a living text during the lifetime of Muhammad. Certain verses revealed to Muhammad were later repudiated by him as "satanic" verses revealed not by Gabriel but by Satan. These verses were expunged from the text that so many had memorized.
After the death of Muhammad, the text of the Qur'an was written down in the caliphate of Abu Bakr. Until 'Uthman, one and only one written text existed. For more than a decade after the death of Muhammad, the Qur'an remained primarily an oral text in the memories of the faithful. In Islamic accounts of the history of the Qur'an , this oral text was entirely faithful to the original verses — this is entirely possible, but Western historians generally agree that some corruptions must have produced slight variations throughout the Islamic world. Nevertheless, the military expansion of Islam led to two direct consequences concerning the integrity of the Quranic text. First, large numbers of the faithful were dying out in the various military expeditions. Each time someone died who had the Quranic text memorized, that meant that one copy of the Qur'an disappeared forever. Second, the expansion of Islam swelled the ranks of the faithful. Many of these new converts spoke other langagues and the original Arabic of the Qur'an began to corrupt. Faced with these two threats to the integrity of the Qur'an , 'Uthman orderd a rescension of the text to be made and to serve as the definitive written version of the text. A rescension is a version of a text that is assembled from all the variant versions of that text.
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 120 'Uthman, however, relied on two sources: the written text that had been ordered by Abu Bakr and that still existed, and the various oral texts of Muslims who memorized it during the lifetime of Muhammad. In Islamic history, there is no variation between these two sources, so the Uthmanic "rescension" is largely a codifying of a single version of a text. This version, the 'Uthmanic rescension, is the version of the Qur'an that has remained, unchanged, the central holy text of Islam.
The Qur'an has one overriding theme, endlessly repeated and elaborated throughout the text: complete submission (in Arabic: islam ; muslim means "one who submits") to the word and the will of God, who is one God and the only God. The God of Islam is both a stern judge and endlessly forgiving; obedience to God wipes away all transgression. This submission, however, must be fully and rationally given; faith (iman ) is a rational consent to the truth of the word of God. Therefore, much of the Qu'ran concerns the word of God and how it is received and believed, or not received and believed as the case may be.
The Thousand and
1,001 Nights, also known as The Thousand and One Nights or Arabian Nights, is a collection of Middle Eastern and South Asian folk tales that were originally published together during the Islamic Golden Age. The stories — from historical tales to tragic romances to comedies — were collected over many centuries by a huge range of scholars and authors. Read below to find ten of the most standout stories.
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This frame story for the entirety of the work is the common thread between each edition of Nights. Shahryar is a king who rules over India and China. He becomes aware of his wife’s infidelity and has her executed, and afterward, in anger and sadness, decides all women are guilty and must be executed. Shahryar marries and executes several virgins, each on the morning after they are married. When the king takes Scheherazade as his wife, she tells him a story on the night of their marriage, but she doesn’t have time to finish it. The king postpones her execution to find out the end of the story. The next night she finishes her story but begins a new one, and Shahryar postpones her execution again. They continue this for 1,001 nights.
’ Although it wasn’t added to the collection until the 18th century by French scholar Antoine Galland, ‘Aladdin’ is one of the most popular tales from 1,001 Nights because of its modern Disney adaptation. In the original tale, Aladdin is a poor, young man in ‘one of the cities of China.’ A sorcerer deceives Aladdin and persuades him to steal an oil lamp from a magic cave. Aladdin accidentally releases a genie from the lamp, and so a series of events unfold in which Aladdin’s every wish comes true, but only to be dismantled by the villain. Thankfully, a Disneyapproved happy ending is in store.
In this tale, a fisherman discovers a chest in the Tigris River that he sells to Harun al-Rashid, the Abbasid Caliph. Harun finds that it contains the body of a dead woman and orders his adviser, Ja’far, to solve the crime. The dead woman’s husband and father both claim to have killed her, but the caliph believes the story of the husband who believed her to have been unfaithful. The husband had bought three unique apples for his wife when she was ill, and when he found a slave with one of the apples, the slave claimed his girlfriend gave it to him. In a rage, the man killed his wife. The slave who stirred up all the trouble ends up being Ja’far’s slave, and Ja’far begs for a pardon.
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In Basrah, a tailor and his wife came upon an amusing hunchback who they decided to invite to their home for dinner. While the hunchback was eating and joking, he choked on a huge, sharp fishbone. The two wrapped the dead man up in cloth and pretended he was a child with smallpox so everyone would leave them alone. The two left the hunchback at the doctor’s house and ran away. The doctor was eager to see his patient, and he tripped down the stairs, falling onto the hunchback. Believing he killed a patient, the doctor pawns the dead body off on his neighbor. The hunchback is passed around until the king’s broker is found with the dead body, and just as the broker is about to be executed, a string of confessions comes from all the assumed murderers. But it turns out the hunchback was never dead at all – a barber brings him back to life.
Duban is a sage, or a wise healer, who works for King Yunan who has leprosy. Yunan’s advisor warns the king that Duban is going to try to kill him, and Yunan executes the healer, fearing for his life. Duban gives the king a magic book just before he is beheaded. After the execution, the king reads through the book and later dies because of a secret poison Duban left on the pages.
This famous tale is another that was added by Galland in the 18th century. Ali Baba is a poor but hardworking woodcutter who finds a thieves’ hideout protected by magic, which he enters by saying, ‘Open Sesame.’ The den is filled with treasures, and Ali Baba lets the secret out to his brother Cassim, who is killed by the thieves while trying to steal the treasure. The thieves find out Ali Baba knows how to get into their hideout, so they set off to kill him, but they are outwitted by Ali Baba’s clever slave, Morgiana.
A poor fisherman casts out his net after calling upon God and pulls out a copper jar. When he opens it, pleased to have found something so valuable, a powerful genie is released. Having been kept captive in the jar for so long, the genie is furious with humanity and vows to kill whoever released him. The fisherman, a wise old man, has no success pleading with the genie, so he tricks the genie into returning to the jar. Trapped again, the genie pledges to reward the fisherman with a lake full of exotic fish if he is released. The fisherman agrees and sells the fish
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 123 to the sultan as the genie instructed. When the sultan investigates the lake where the fish came from, he meets a prince who is half stone. The sultan helps the prince and continues to stay friends with the fisherman.
Harun al-Rashid, the caliph in the story, asks the famous writer al-Asma’i and the poet Husayn al-Khali to tell him a story. Husayn tells him of visiting Bassorah to present a poem. Husayn went inside a house to ask for a glass of water, and there he met a beautiful woman who confessed her love for a young man who used to pass by the house, but stopped when he saw the woman playing with her slave. Husayn decides to help her meet him again by taking him a note, but the man refuses to come back. When he visits the house a year later, however, he finds the two married.
Three princes all want to marry their cousin Nouronnihar, and the Grand Sultan, their father, guarantees the woman’s hand to the brother who finds the item with the highest value. They each work to bring the best item to the table, including a magic carpet to ride, a magical tube that shows the viewer his deepest wishes, and a healing apple. After finding the items, the princes hear that Nouronnihar is ill, and rather than fighting over her, they bring all of their items together to save her life.
A famous sailor named Sinbad tells the stories of his Homeric travels to a poor porter. The tales include shipwrecks, ferocious beasts, the Old Man of the Sea, and other dangers. The thrill of life at sea leads Sinbad to keep exploring despite the danger, but after his seventh voyage, Sinbad finally decides to settle down. Sinbad’s stories are another famous section of the collection, but they weren’t added until later compilations – they date back to a Turkish collection in 1637.
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Answer the question below. 1. What is the role of ‘Koran’ for the Arabian community? ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________
Make the task below. a. Choose one literary piece from ‘The Thousand and One Nights’ that best suits to be used as a subject text for Gender Criticism as a lens in analyzing a literature.
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c. Describe the best qualities and features of Asia. d. Answer questions about the people, country, religion and literature in Asia.
This chapter will introduce you the facts about Asia, its people, different countries and their most widely spread religions.
Asia, the world’s largest and most diverse continent. It occupies the eastern four-fifths of the giant Eurasian landmass. Asia is more a geographic term than a homogeneous continent, and the use of the term to describe such a vast area always carries the potential of obscuring the enormous diversity among the regions it encompasses. Asia has both the highest and the lowest points on the surface of Earth, has the longest coastline of any continent, is subject overall to the world’s widest climatic extremes, and, consequently, produces the most varied forms of vegetation and animal life on Earth. In addition, the peoples of Asia have established the broadest variety of human adaptation found on any of the continents.
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The land boundary between Asia and Europe is a historical and cultural construct that has been defined variously; only as a matter of agreement is it tied to a specific borderline. The most convenient geographic boundary—one that has been adopted by most geographers—is a line that runs south from the Arctic Ocean along the Ural Mountains and then turns southwest along the Emba River to the northern shore of the Caspian Sea; west of the Caspian, the boundary follows the Kuma-Manych Depression to the Sea of Azov and the Kerch Strait of the Black Sea. Thus, the isthmus between the Black and Caspian seas, which culminates in the Caucasus mountain range to the south, is part of Asia.
The total area of Asia, including Asian Russia (with the Caucasian isthmus) but excluding the island of New Guinea, amounts to some 17,226,200 square miles (44,614,000 square km), roughly one-third of the land surface of Earth. The islands—including Taiwan, those of Japan and Indonesia, Sakhalin and other islands of Asian Russia, Sri Lanka, Cyprus, and numerous smaller islands—together constitute 1,240,000 square miles (3,210,000 square km), about 7 percent of the total. (Although New Guinea is mentioned occasionally in this article, it generally is not considered a part of Asia.) The farthest terminal points of the Asian mainland are Cape Chelyuskin in north-central Siberia, Russia (77°43′ N), to the north; the tip of the Malay Peninsula, Cape Piai, or Bulus (1°16′ N), to the south; Cape Baba in Turkey (26°4′ E) to the west; and Cape Dezhnev (Dezhnyov), or East Cape (169°40′ W), in northeastern Siberia, overlooking the Bering Strait, to the east.
Asia has the highest average elevation of the continents and contains the greatest relative relief. The tallest peak in the world, Mount Everest, which reaches an elevation of 29,035 feet (8,850 metres; see Researcher’s Note: Height of Mount Everest); the lowest place on Earth’s land surface, the Dead Sea, measured in the mid-2010s at about 1,410 feet (430 metres) below sea level; and the world’s deepest continental trough, occupied by Lake Baikal, which is 5,315 feet (1,620 metres) deep and whose bottom lies 3,822 feet (1,165 metres) below sea level, are all located in Asia. Those physiographic extremes and the overall predominance of mountain belts and plateaus are the result of the collision of tectonic plates. In geologic terms, Asia comprises several very ancient continental platforms and other blocks of land that merged over the eons. Most of those units had coalesced as a continental landmass by about 160 million years ago, when the core of the Indian subcontinent broke off from Africa and began drifting northeastward to collide with the southern flank of Asia about 50 million to 40 million years ago. The northeastward movement of the subcontinent continues at about 2.4 inches (6 cm) per year. The impact and pressure continue to raise the Plateau of Tibet and the Himalayas.
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Afghanistan Armenia Azerbaijan
Bahrain Bangladesh Bhutan Brunei Cambodia China Cyprus Georgia India Indonesia
Iran Iraq Israel Japan Jordan
Myanmar (formerly Burma) Nepal North Korea Oman
Kazakhstan Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Laos Lebanon Malaysia Maldives Mongolia
Pakistan Palestine Philippines Qatar
South Korea Sri Lanka Syria Taiwan Tajikistan Thailand Timor-Leste Turkey Turkmenistan United Arab Emirates (UAE) Uzbekistan
Russia Vietnam Saudi Arabia Singapore
Yemen
Asia is the largest and most populous continent and the birthplace of many religions including Buddhism, Christianity, Confucianism, Hinduism, Islam, Jainism, Judaism, Shinto, Sikhism, Taoism, and Zoroastrianism.
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What qualities and features of Asian countries you think stand out from any other countries from other continents? Why? _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________
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a. Recognize importance in the field of writing of the effect brought by the foreign invaders b. Identify filipino writers that brought pride in the Philippines c. Critique the short story, “How my brother Leon Brought Home A Wife
This chapter introduces you the beauty of Philippine literature in general sense. Also, it features its prominent writers and masterpieces. You will know the works of literature that made because of the foreign colonization dating many years now.
Philippine literature is typified by Ladino poems and the religious and secular dramas held on various religious holidays or following someone's death. It is heavily influenced by the arrival of the Spanish in 1565. Philippine literature was primarily oral in nature as most written literature was destroyed. After the destruction of the Philippine written literature by the Spanish during their conquest of the region, Spanish became the predominant language. The promotion of the Spanish language
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 130 throughout the more accessible parts of the Philippines led to the development of the devotional poetry of the ladinos in the 1700s. Other languages used in Philippine literature include English to a slight degree, the native Tagalog and other languages native to the Philippines.
Nicomedes "Nick" Márquez Joaquín (May 4, 1917 – April 29, 2004) was a Filipino writer and journalist best known for his short stories and novels in the English language. He also wrote using the pen name Quijano de Manila. Joaquín was conferred the rank and title of National Artist of the Philippines for Literature. He has been considered one of the most important Filipino writers, along with José Rizal and Claro M. Recto. Unlike Rizal and Recto, whose
(14 January 1898 – 15 December 1985) was a Filipino diplomat, statesman, soldier, journalist and author. He was a reporter at 16, a newspaper editor by the age of 20, and a publisher at 32. He was a co-founder of the Boy Scouts of the Philippines, a general in the US Army and the Philippine Army, university president, President of the UN General Assembly, was eventually named one of the Philippines' National Artists in Literature, and was the recipient of many other honors and honorary degrees. He was born in Camiling, Tarlac and he studied at the Camiling Central Elementary School during his basic education.
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(June 19, 1861 – December 30, 1896) was a Filipino nationalist and polymath during the tail end of the Spanish colonial period of the Philippines. He is tagged as the national hero (pambansang bayani) of the Filipino people.[8] An ophthalmologist by profession, Rizal became a writer and a key member of the Filipino Propaganda Movement, which advocated political reforms for the colony under Spain. He was executed by the Spanish colonial government for the crime of rebellion after the Philippine Revolution, inspired in part by his writings, broke out. Though he was not actively involved in its planning or conduct, he ultimately approved of its goals which eventually led to Philippine independence.
He is widely considered one of the greatest heroes of the Philippines and has been recommended to be so honored by an officially empaneled National Heroes Committee. However, no law, executive order or proclamation has been enacted or issued officially proclaiming any Filipino historical figure as a national hero.[9] He was the author of the novels Noli Me Tángere and El filibusterismo, and a number of poems and essays.[10][11]
(September 11, 1917 – September 28, 1989) was a Filipino politician and kleptocrat who was the tenth President of the Philippines from 1965 to 1986. A leading member of the New Society Movement, he ruled as a dictator under martial law from 1972 until 1981. One of the most controversial leaders of the 20th century, Marcos' rule was infamous for its corruption, extravagance, and brutality.
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 132 Marcos claimed an active part in World War II, including fighting alongside the Americans in the Bataan Death March and being the "most decorated war hero in the Philippines". A number of his claims were found to be false and United States Army documents described Marcos's wartime claims as "fraudulent" and "absurd."
Diosdado Pangan Macapagal Sr. (September 28, 1910 – April 21, 1997) was the ninth President of the Philippines, serving from 1961 to 1965, and the sixth Vice-President, serving from 1957 to 1961. He also served as a member of the House of Representatives, and headed the Constitutional Convention of 1970. He is the father of Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, who was the 14th President of the Philippines from 2001 to 2010.
Ricardo Lee (born as March 19, 1948) is a Filipino screenwriter, journalist, novelist, and playwright. He has written more than 150 film screenplays since 1973, earning him more than 50 trophies from various award-giving bodies, including a 2003 Natatanging Gawad Urian Lifetime Achievement Award from the Manunuri ng Pelikulang Pilipino (Filipino Film Critics). As a screenwriter, he has worked with many Filipino film directors, most notably with Lino Brocka and Ishmael Bernal.
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An excerpt from
How My Brother leon By Manuel E. Arguilla
She stepped down from the carretela of Ca Celin with a quick, delicate grace. She was lovely. SHe was tall. She looked up to my brother with a smile, and her forehead was on a level with his mouth.
"You are Baldo," she said and placed her hand lightly on my shoulder. Her nails were long, but they were not painted. She was fragrant like a morning when papayas are in bloom. And a small dimple appeared momently high on her right cheek. "And this is Labang of whom I have heard so much." She held the wrist of one hand with the other and looked at Labang, and Labang never stopped chewing his cud. He swallowed and brought up to his mouth more cud and the sound of his insides was like a drum.
I laid a hand on Labang's massive neck and said to her: "You may scratch his forehead now."
She hesitated and I saw that her eyes were on the long, curving horns. But she came and touched Labang's forehead with her long fingers, and Labang never stopped chewing his cud except that his big eyes half closed. And by and by she was scratching his forehead very daintily. Read the whole story at
http://www.seasite.niu.edu/tagalog/Literature/Short%20Storie s/How%20My%20Brother%20Leon%20Brought%20Home%20A %20Wife.htm
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Amnesty - Jose Y. Dalisay Jr. Dead Stars - Paz Marquez Benitez Document - Luis Joaquin M. Katigbak Faith, Love, Time and Dr. Lazaro - Greg Brillantes Footnote to Youth - Jose Garcia Villa Magnificence - Estrella Alfon May Day Eve - Nick Joaquin Midsummer - Manuel E. Arguilla My Father Goes to Court - Carlos Bulosan The Wedding Dance - Amador Daguio
Noli Me Tángere by Dr. José Rizal Among the great novels in Philippine literature, Noli Me Tángere (Touch Me Not) is the most controversial and widely-known – it’s included in the current education curriculum of Filipino high school students. Written by the country’s national hero, Dr. José Rizal, this novel sparked the social awakening of Filipinos during the Spanish colonial era. As Rizal cannot fathom the unfairness of the Spanish priests and the ruling government at the time, his purpose of writing the book was to expose the ills of Philippine society at the time. In this revolutionary book, you’ll learn about the story of Crisostomo Ibarra, how he dealt with Spanish authorities, and how he prepared for his revenge, as told in Rizal’s 2nd book, El Filibusterismo.
Florante at Laura by Francisco Balagtas Another famous masterpiece in Philippine literature, Francisco Balagtas’ Florante at Laura is written in the form of ‘awit’ where there are four lines per stanza and 12 syllables per line. Set in the fictional kingdom of Albania, it tackles the story between Duke Florante and Princess Laura, who’s also being pursued by Florante’s enemy Count Adolfo. As a literary classic, this book has become a favorite play not only among Filipino high school students, but has been showcased in grand theaters such as Gantimpala Theater and the Cultural Center of the Philippines.
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Mga Ibong Mandaragit by Amado V. Hernandez Mga Ibong Mandaragit (Birds of Prey) was written by Filipino writer and social activist, Amado V. Hernandez. Being a novel that tackles social-political issues, particularly Philippine revolution and neocolonialism, it has a connection to Rizal’s earlier novels – Noli Me Tángere and El Filibusterismo. There was a passage in the novel where protagonist Mando Plaridel was tested by Tata Matyas on what he knows about Rizal’s controversial books. As he narrated the living conditions of Filipinos then, readers will note how Hernandez had high hopes for significant changes that would uplift the Philippine society.
The Woman Who Had Two Navels by Nick Joaquin Being one of the most admired writers in Philippine literature, Nick Joaquin was recognized as National Artist of the Philippines for Literature in 1976. In his historical novel entitled The Woman Who Had Two Navels, Joaquin examines the effects and influence of the past towards the post-war events in the Philippines. Lead female character Connie Escobar thinks she has two navels, and thus requests her doctor to remove one – which symbolically means that she wants to shun away from a traumatic past. She later finds out that her husband, Macho Escobar, was the lover of her mother. Hoping to escape after being betrayed, she flees, only to discover more truths.
Po-on A Novel by F. Sionil Jose Like Hernandez and Joaquin, F. Sionil Jose’s works have been deeply influenced by Rizal. This was reflected in his books and short stories, particularly the five-part novel series Rosales Saga, which narrated class struggles and colonialism experienced by Filipinos. Po-on A Novel is the first book in the Rosales Saga, which tells stories about Rosales, Pangasinan in the Philippines. While this book is the last written and published in the series, it’s actually the book that sets the five-part story. Discover the story of Eustaqio “Istak” Samson who abandoned his family to join the rebel forces and escape the cruelty of Spanish authorities. The other four books in the saga are: Tree, My Brother, My Executioner, The Pretenders, and Mass.
Banaag at Sikat by Lope K. Santos Banaag at Sikat (From Early Dawn to Full Light) has been dubbed the ‘bible of the Filipino working class.’ Being among the earliest novels written by Lope K. Santos, considered by Filipino critic Teodoro Agoncillo as one of the most important books lustrado by Miguel it’s Syjuco in Philippine literature in 1949. That’s because according to Agoncillo, it paved the way for the development of a system on how Tagalog novels were written. The novel narrates the story between Delfin and Felipe who have contrasting views. Delfin is a socialist whereas Felipe, despite the son a rich landowner, leans towards This novel written by Miguel Syjuco landed himbeing a spot on ofthe 2008 anarchism. Throughout the narrative, themes with of love, livelihood, and societal status Man Asian Literary Prize, being awarded the Grand Prize. Layered fiction and are embedded. non-fiction themes, the story begins with main character Crispin Salvador, a noted writer whose lifeless body was discovered by authorities floating off the Hudson River in New York. Since there was no evidence of foul play, it led them to think
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Dekada ’70 by Lualhati Bautista The Marcos era in the ’70s is a dark chapter in Philippine history. No one dares to speak against the government for fear of execution – in some cases, bodies are not even retrieved. Hence, it has been a tumultuous period, especially for the Filipino parents to protect their kids from the oppressive regime and at the same time, stand together as one family. Lualhati Bautista has captured true-to-life scenarios in the ’70s, mentioning changes that arose after the Plaza Miranda bombing and the suspension of the Writ of Habeas Corpus in the Philippines. The novel tells the story of lead protagonist Amanda Bartolome and her family, where she had to deal with facing the law and her responsibilities towards her five sons.
Smaller and Smaller Circles by F.H. Batacan F.H. Batacan’s Smaller and Smaller Circles is the first Filipino crime detective story set in the Philippines. The mystery novel revolves around two Jesuit priests named Gus Saenz and Jerome Lucero who happen to perform forensic work. There have been murders of young boys in the slum area of Payatas. As the novel explores themes that deal with the corruption and inefficiency in the government, they hope to uncover the mysterious murderer behind the serial killings in Manila‘s slum area. In 1999, Batacan’s mystery novel won the Carlos Palanca Grand Prize for English Novel.
ABNKKBSNPLAko?! by Bob Ong Spelt in the texting language, the title of this book phonetically reads “Aba nakakabasa na pala ako?!” which can be translated as “Wow I can read now?!” Written by an anonymous Filipino contemporary author whose pen name is Bob Ong, the book rose to fame for depicting the supposed unforgettable moments of his life as a student, starting from the first time of entering school up to his college days.
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Answer the following questions below: 1. In the field of writing, did filipinos benefit the mess brought by the foreing invaders? Justify your answer. _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ 2. Aside from Dr. Jose Rizal, who do you think brought pride to our nation in terms of writing? What certain piece did he make and how it changes the perspective of other people? Justify your answer. _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________
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Make the task below.
a. Use the Sociological Criticism to analyze the short story, “How My Brother Leon Brought Home A Wife”
(The space provided below is for comments and feedbacks.)
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a. Answer the questions about the characteristics of the Indonesian literature b. Critique the short story, “Too-too-moo”, through the use of Reader-Response Criticism
In this chapter you will know the qualities of the Indonesian literature and its historical background. You will also know different works of poetry and prose together with some famous writers.
Indonesian literatures, the poetry and prose writings in Javanese, Malay, Sundanese, and other languages of the peoples of Indonesia. They include works orally transmitted and then preserved in written form by the Indonesian peoples, oral literature, and the modern literatures that began to emerge in the early 20th century as a result of Western influence. Indonesia possesses a wealth of verbal art. Much of this material, such as the didong poetry of Aceh or the tekena’ epic tales... Many of the Indonesian songs, or poems, that were orally transmitted by professional priest-singers embody traditions that have a religious function. Improvisation played a great part in this kind of poetry, and there is reason to believe that in its present form much of it is of no great age. Indonesian orally transmitted prose forms are highly varied and include myths, animal stories and “beast fables,” fairy tales, legends, puzzles and riddles, and anecdotes and
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 140 adventure stories. The divine heroes and epic animals of these tales show the influence of Indian literature and the written literatures of other neighbouring cultures. Written literature in Indonesia has been preserved in the various languages of Sumatra (Acehnese, Batak, Rejang, Lampong, and Malay), in the languages of Java (Sundanese and Madurese as well as Javanese), in Bali and Lombok, and in the more important languages of South Celebes (Makassarese and Buginese). By far the most important in both quantity and quality are the literatures in Javanese and Malay.
Famous writers and their masterpieces. Writer
Text
’ Lukisan Wanita The painting conveys her exquisite taste: ear studs, bracelets, green and yellow selendang; the sash conceals her pregnancy. The death she is carrying can’t be disguised. The life she carries will grasp and cling on. Yearning, restlessness and the turmoil of fear are not recorded in the brush-strokes, pencil outline of a face surrendering to the flow of history. The painting, with its final brilliant gesture, only fully reveals this face when it is framed by memory.
English Translator
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Told by Aaron Shepard
Once on the island of Java there was a little girl named Too-too-moo. She lived with her Mama in a one‑room house in a forest. They were poor but they were happy. Or they would have been happy, if not for a terrible giant who came every day. Each morning, when Too-too-moo woke up, she fastened her hair in a knot with her long hairpin. Then she hurried into the woods to help Mama gather firewood and herbs to sell at the village market. When that was done, Mama cooked a small pot of plain rice and shared it with Too-toomoo for breakfast. She also cooked a huge pot of sweet porridge. She made it from tasty rice flour, fragrant coconut milk, and lots of sugar. But not even the tiniest bit of the porridge was for Too-too-moo and her Mama. It was all for the giant. Mama knew, if the giant came and did not find a full pot of porridge, he would eat Too-too-moo instead! Then Mama left for the market, while Too-too-moo did the housework. She shook out their sleeping mat, swept the floor, and washed their few dishes. Then she went outside to play. Soon she heard the giant’s terrible footsteps. BOOM! BOOM! BOOM! Too-too-moo ran into the house, picked up the covered pot of porridge, placed it outside on the doorstep, and shut and locked the door. Then she crouched and trembled in a corner. The giant stamped up to the house. With one huge finger, he knocked on the door— Tock, tock, tock. Then he called, “Too-too-moo! Where are you?” And Too-too-moo answered, “In the house.” “And where is your Mama?”
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“At the market.” “And where is my PORRIDGE?” “In the pot!” The giant took off the cover, picked up the pot, and swallowed the porridge in one big gulp. Then he threw down the pot and stamped back through the forest. This happened every day. When Mama returned in the evening, she brought food that she had bought with the money earned at the market. But since they had to feed the giant, there was never enough for themselves. One day, Mama did not sell as much as usual. When she came home, she had only enough food for the giant. She and Too-too-moo had to go hungry. The next day was the same. And so was the day after that. Too-too-moo and her Mama were starving. On the fourth morning, Too-too-moo got up, fastened her hair with her long hairpin, and helped Mama gather firewood and herbs. Then Mama cooked the porridge for the giant and left for the market. The sweet smell of the porridge filled the little house. Too-too-moo was so hungry, she couldn’t stand it. “I’ll eat just one spoonful,” she said to herself. “The giant will never know.” Too-too-moo uncovered the pot and ate one spoonful. But she was too hungry to stop! Before she knew what she was doing, a quarter of the porridge was gone. Then she heard the giant’s terrible footsteps. BOOM! BOOM! BOOM! Too-too-moo quickly covered the pot, placed it outside on the doorstep, and shut and locked the door. Then she crouched and trembled in a corner. The giant stamped up to the house. With one huge finger, he knocked on the door— Tock, tock, tock. Then he called, “Too-too-moo! Where are you?” And Too-too-moo answered, “In the house.”
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 143 “And where is your Mama?” “At the market.” “And where is my PORRIDGE?” “In the pot!” The giant took off the cover, picked up the pot, stopped, and looked. “This pot is not full!” bellowed the giant. He threw it down and called again, “Too-too-moo! Where are YOU?” Too-too-moo did not answer. With one blow of his fist, the giant knocked down the door. He reached in his long arm and felt all around till he found Too-too-moo. Then he pulled her from the house, tossed her in his mouth, and swallowed her in one big gulp. Too-too-moo tumbled into the giant’s stomach. “Please let me out!” she shouted. But the giant didn’t listen as he turned and stamped back through the forest. Too-too-moo cried and shook with fear. Then all of a sudden, she remembered her long hairpin. Quickly she pulled it from her hair. With both hands and all her strength, Too-too-moo stuck it into the giant. “YOW!” howled the giant. Too-too-moo stuck him again. “OUCH! YOW!” The giant danced about, but there was nothing he could do. “TOO-TOOMOO, STOP!” But Too-too-moo did not stop. She stuck the giant again and again. The bellowing giant raced through the woods. Mad with pain, he did not look where he was going. He tripped on a root and cracked his head on a rock. The giant was dead! But Too-too-moo was still trapped inside. At that moment, Mama was on her way home. She had been lucky that day, and had quickly sold all she had carried to market. So she had bought rice and fish and vegetables, and even roasted peanuts as a special treat for Too-too-moo.
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But when she reached the house, she saw the porridge thrown down and the door knocked in. She called, “Too-too-moo! Where are you?” There was no answer. Mama grabbed a big cooking knife and ran along the trail of the giant’s footsteps, calling, “Too-too-moo! Where are YOU?” Still no answer. Then she came to where the giant lay dead. But her daughter was nowhere to be seen, so she called one last time, “TOO-TOO-MOO! WHERE ARE YOU?” And Too-too-moo answered, “IN THE GIANT!” With both hands and all her strength, Mama slit open the giant’s side. And out climbed— Too-too-moo! From that time on, Too-too-moo and her Mama were happy. There was no more giant to bother them. They always had enough to eat. And they had sweet porridge for breakfast, every single day.
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Make the task below. a. Use the Reader-Response Criticism in analyzing the short story, “Too-too-moo and The Giant
(The space provided below is for comments and feedbacks.)
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a. Answer questions about the characteristics of the Thai literature b. Critique one of the Thai literary texts through the use of Formalistic Criticism
This chapter helps you know more about Thai literature, its distinct features and the very root of its literature,and history. It also brings you to their popular masterpieces, and famous writers.
The earliest literature, that of the Sukhothai period (13th to mid-14th century), survives chiefly in stone inscriptions, which provide vivid accounts of contemporary life. The most famous of these is the Ramkhamhaeng inscription of 1292, in which King Ramkhamhaeng records the economic abundance of his kingdom and the benevolence of his rule.
Written in verse, dates from the Ayutthaya period (1351–1767). It includes religious works such as Maha chat (“The Great Birth”), later rewritten as Maha chat kham luang (“The Royal Version of the Great Birth”), the Thai version of the Vessantara jataka, which recounts the
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 147 story of the future Buddha’s penultimate life on earth; Lilit phra Lo (“The Story of Prince Lo”), a tragic romance, widely regarded as one of the greatest of Thai poetic works, and Lilit Yuan phai (“The Defeat of the Yuan”), a historical work, celebrating Ayutthaya’s defeat of the forces of the northern Lan Na kingdom. The reign of King Narai (1656–88) is seen as a golden era, in which writers were welcomed at the royal court, and new verse forms were developed; some of the most highly regarded nirat poems—a genre characterized by the themes of journeying, separation, and love-longing—date from this period, including Si Prat’s famous Nirat khlong kamsuan (“A Mournful Journey”), describing his journey into exile in Nakhon Sri Thammarat.
Much literature was lost in the sack of Ayutthaya by Hsinbyushin of Myanmar (Burma) in 1767. After the restoration of Thai sovereignty, and the establishment of a new capital at Bangkok, many law codes, religious works, and literary texts were rewritten. These include the Ramakian, a Thai version of the Indian Ramayana, which was composed during the reign of Rama I (1782–1809); Khun Chang Khun Phaen, an epic poem full of martial and amatory exploits, which took its title from the two main protagonists; and Phra Aphaimani, named after its hero. The second and third both date from the reign of Rama II (1809–24). Translations of best-selling Western fiction by authors such as Marie Corelli, William Le Queux, Charles Garvice, H. Rider Haggard, Sax Rohmer, Anthony Hope, and Arthur Conan Doyle, began to appear at the beginning of the 20th century, but by the mid-1920s original Thai stories, often serialized in newspapers and magazines before their publication in a book, had become more popular. Most were romantic novels, typically involving a poor boy–rich girl (or rich boy–poor girl) theme, in which the plot was brought to a happy conclusion by a series of improbable coincidences. The late 1920s heralded a golden decade in which a number of writers began to address social issues (such as polygamy, prostitution, social inequality, and social class) in a serious way. Works such as Lakhon haeng chiwit (1929; The Circus of Life) by M.C. Akatdamkoeng Raphiphat, Songkhram chiwit (1932; “The War of Life”) and Khang lang phap (1937; Behind the Painting and Other Stories) by Siburapha (pen name of Kulap Saipradit), Ying khon chua (1937; The Prostitute) by K. Surangkhanang (Kanha Khiengsiri), and Phudi (1937; “The Gentry”) by Dokmai Sot (Buppha Kunchon), have since come to be regarded as classics. Of these, the most famous is Siburapha’s Behind the Painting, which by the turn of the 21st century had been reprinted almost 40 times, translated into Chinese and Japanese, and twice adapted for film. Set partly in Japan, the story relates the doomed love affair between a young Thai student studying finance in Japan and an older, unhappily married Thai aristocrat. It differs from most fiction of the period in its attempt to deal honestly with emotions; more than 10 years after its appearance, an influential essay by P. Mu’angchomphu (Udom Sisuwan) suggested that, at a deeper level, the characters symbolize the eclipse of the old aristocracy by a new comprador capitalist class.
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1. Seni Saowapong (1918 – 2014) Sakchai Bamrungpong was a diplomat, author and journalist who wrote under the pen-name of Seni Saowapong. He was named a National Artist for literature in 1990. His most outstanding novel is Pee-sard (The Ghost). Written in 1953, it did not become popular until after the Oct 14, 1973 uprising, and it had a profound impact on student activists. Pee-sard criticises the feudal system and old values in Thai society and is told through the eyes of the main characters Sai Seema and Ratchanee who represent new-generation Thais. The pair wants everyone to be treated equally, regardless of their family background, and to be the masters of their own destiny. Sai Seema’s comments at the end of the book are challenging and a clear reference to the book’s title.
2. Rong Wongsawan (1932 – 2009) Rong Wongsawan, a.k.a. the “great eagle” of local literary circles, was honoured as a National Artist in 1995. His versatile works range from novels, short stories, essays, articles for magazines and newspapers, and documentaries to screenplays. He rose to fame after he wrote Pa Concrete (Concrete Forest), a satire about Thai people living in the United States during the golden age of hippies. The novel looks at their behaviour, both “beautiful” and abominable. Rong is best known for his unorthodox literary style and his breaking of the rules of Thai grammar. He was once accused by some conservative teachers of “destroying” the Thai language.
3. Srifa Ladawan (1930 - 2013) ML Srifa Mahawan, better known by her pen name “Srifa Ladawan”, was named a National Artist in 1996.The writer went by many pen names, including “Chunlada Phakdiphumin” and “Seefa”, using them to adorn more than 100 novels and short stories, as well as intriguing documentaries about the lives of noblemen in palaces. Many of her novels, which depict social ills without making judgments, have been made into TV soap operas and movies. Some have been translated into Japanese through the Toyota Foundation. Srifa’s most acclaimed novel is Kamin Kub Poon which portrays the struggles of the ruling class in the post-1932 Siamese Revolution leading up to WWII.
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4. Angkarn Kalayanapong (1953 - 2012) Dubbed the greatest poet of the Rattanakosin period,Angkarn Kalayanapong was a gifted writer and painter. The Nakhon Si Thammarat native gave birth to modern Thai poetry and his creations encourage people to rid themselves of foolish ways and seek wisdom in their lives by learning from nature and the Dhamma. Angkarn’s poetic style is unique in terms of his verbal acrobatics, his intensity, and the richness of the language. Often, he refused to be restricted by traditional poetic patterns and conventions. Angkarn was named a National Artist in literature in 1989, thanks to his popular book Kaweenipon Kong Angkarn (Angkarn’s Poetry). He won a Southeast Asian Writers (SEA) Award in 1986 with Panitharn Kawee (Declaration Of a Poet).
5. Cha-oom Panjapan (1921 – 2013) Cha-oom Panjapan, also known as Cha-oom Yamngarm, was a screenwriter for TV and radio soap operas, a book editor and a songwriter for “Soontharaporn”. His works were published widely in now-defunct magazines dating back to the ‘50s - Satree Sarn, Sri Sabda, Mae Ban Karn Ruan and Sakul Thai may be remembered by many. She received the Narathip Award in 2003 from the Thai Writers Association. Her fame was capped with the novel Tad Dao Bussaya, which has been made into a TV soap five times.
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Make the task below.
a. Look for any Thai literary piece that is already being translated to English, and use the Formalistic Criticism upon analyzing the text. (The space provided below is for comments and feedbacks.)
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a. Answer the questions about the Chinese literature b. Critique the quotes/maxims of Confucius using the Moral-Philosophical Approach
This chapter will bring you to the China’s finest writers and masterpieces. You will know the distinct characteristics of their literature. This also features Confucius teachings that will insanely change and inspire your perspectives towards life.
-Is one of the major literary heritages of the world, with an uninterrupted history of more than 3,000 years, dating back at least to the 14th century BCE. Its medium, the Chinese language, has retained its unmistakable identity in both its spoken and written aspects in spite of generally gradual changes in pronunciation, the existence of regional and local dialects, and several stages in the structural representation of the written graphs, or “characters.” Even the partial or total conquests of China for considerable periods by non-Han Chinese ethnic groups from outside the Great Wall failed to disrupt this continuity, for the conquerors were forced to adopt the written Chinese language as their official medium of communication because they had none of their own. Since the Chinese graphs were inherently nonphonetic, they were at best unsatisfactory tools for the transcription of a non-Chinese language, and attempts at creating a new alphabetic-phonetic written language for empire building proved unsuccessful on three separate occasions. The result was that after a period of alien domination, the conquerors were culturally
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 152 assimilated (except the Mongols, who retreated en masse to their original homeland after the collapse of the Yuan [or Mongol] dynasty in 1368). Thus, there was no disruption in China’s literary development.
Through cultural contacts, Chinese literature has profoundly influenced the literary traditions of other Asian countries, particularly Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Not only was the Chinese script adopted for the written language in these countries, but some writers adopted the Chinese language as their chief literary medium, at least before the 20th century.
The graphic nature of the written aspect of the Chinese language has produced a number of noteworthy effects upon Chinese literature and its diffusion: 1. Chinese literature, especially poetry, is recorded in handwriting or in print and purports to make an aesthetic appeal to the reader that is visual as well as aural. 2. This visual appeal of the graphs has in fact given rise to the elevated status of calligraphy in China, where it has been regarded for at least the last 16 centuries as a fine art comparable to painting. Scrolls of calligraphic renderings of poems and prose selections have continued to be hung alongside paintings in the homes of the common people as well as the elite, converting these literary gems into something to be enjoyed in everyday living. 3. On the negative side, such a writing system has been an impediment to education and the spread of literacy, thus reducing the number of readers of literature, for even a rudimentary level of reading and writing requires knowledge of more than 1,000 graphs, together with their pronunciation. 4. On the other hand, the Chinese written language, even with its obvious disadvantages, has been a potent factor in perpetuating the cultural unity of the growing millions of the Chinese people, including assimilated groups in far-flung peripheral areas. Different in function from recording words in an alphabetic–phonetic language, the graphs are not primarily indicators of sounds and can therefore be pronounced in variant ways to accommodate geographical diversities in speech and historical phonological changes without damage to the meaning of the written page. As a result, the major dialects in China never developed into separate written languages as did the Romance languages, and, although the reader of a Confucian Classic in southern China might not understand the everyday speech of someone from the far north, Chinese literature has continued to be the common asset of the whole Han Chinese people. By the same token, the graphs of China could be utilized by speakers of other languages as their literary mediums.
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Confucius, Pinyin romanization Kongfuzi, or Kongzi, Wade-Giles K’ung-fu-tzu, or K’ung-tzu, original name Kongqiu, literary name Zhongni, (born 551, Qufu, state of Lu [now in Shandong province, China]—died 479 BCE, Lu), China’s most famous teacher, philosopher, and political theorist, whose ideas have influenced the civilization of East Asia. Confucius’s life, in contrast to his tremendous importance, seems starkly undramatic, or, as a Chinese expression has it, it seems “plain and real.” The plainness and reality of Confucius’s life, however, underlines that his humanity was not revealed truth but an expression of self-cultivation, of the ability of human effort to shape its own destiny. The faith in the possibility of ordinary human beings to become awe-inspiring sages and worthies is deeply rooted in the Confucian heritage, and the insistence that human beings are teachable, improvable, and perfectible through personal and communal endeavour is typically Confucian.
Laozi, (Chinese: “Master Lao” or “Old Master”) original name (Wade-Giles) Li Er, deified as Lao Jun, Tai Shang Lao-Jun, or Tai Shang Xuanyuan Huangdi, also called Lao Dun or Lao Dan, (flourished 6th century BCE, China), the first philosopher of Chinese Daoism and the alleged author of the Daodejing, a primary Daoist writing. Modern scholars discount the possibility that the Daodejing was written by only one person but readily acknowledge the influence of Daoism on the development of Buddhism. Laozi is venerated as a philosopher by Confucians and as a saint or god in popular religion and was worshipped as an imperial ancestor during the Tang dynasty (618–907). (See also Daoism.)
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Sun Tzu was a Chinese general, military strategist, writer and philosopher who lived in the Eastern Zhou period of ancient China. Sun Tzu is traditionally credited as the author of The Art of War, an influential work of military strategy that has affected both Western and East Asian philosophy and military thinking.
The names Confucius, Lao Tzu, and Sun Tzu are well-known around the world, but many of China’s poets, philosophers, and novelists remain hidden gems to outsiders. Take a look at the list below and discover 5 of China’s greatest writers, from the end of the Zhou dynasty to the twentieth century.
1. Qu Yuan (339-278 BC) was a statesman and poet during the Warring States period. He has been attributed to the first seven poems of the Chu ci (Songs of Chu). He served under King Huai but was banished after composing the poem “Li Sao” (Encountering Sorrow), which attacked the court for failing to listen to his advice. He committed suicide by throwing himself in a river.
2. Wang Wei (701-761) was a painter, musician, poet, and devout Buddhist. He composed “landscape poems” while roaming the lands near the Wang River, exchanging verses with his friend Pei Di. A Zen Master taught him the doctrine of dunwu (instantaneous enlightenment), and Wei’s later poetry reflects his devotion. He was referred to as Shi fo, or the Buddha of Poetry. The poet Su Shi said of his works: “There is painting in his poetry, and poetry in his painting.”
3. Shi Nai’en (1296-1372) was the author of the first of the “four great classical novels,” though some historians believe his mentor Luo Guanzhong played a role its writing. Not much is known about Shi, but the work attributed to him, Shuihu zhuan (Water Margin), about a rebellious leader of outlaws, has been equally banned and celebrated over hundreds of years. Water Margin was written in popular vernacular and expanded on its characters in contrast to the historical writings of the time, advancing the art of the novel.
4. Luo Guanzhong (1330-1400) was a prolific writer who has had many anonymous works attributed to him over the years. Historians agree that the second of the “four great classical
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 155 novels,” Sanguo yani (Romance of the Three Kingdoms), was written by Luo. Over 750,000 Chinese characters long, the novel told the story of three kingdoms over the course of a century. It was based on a historical account and contained historical figures, but also incorporated folk stories and plots from popular dramas of the time.
5. Not much is known about Wu Cheng’en (c. 1500-1582), the author to whom the third of the “four great classical novels,” Xi you ji (Journey to the West), is attributed. Loosely based on the historical account of the Buddhist monk, Xuanzang, the novel humorously followed a group of pilgrims on a journey to India and back. The novel contained religious themes, witty dialogue, and elegant poems, as well as critical commentary on contemporary Ming-era China.
Here are some of the famous quotes of Confucius that will literally change your perspectives in life.
The man who asks a question is a fool for a minute, the man who does not ask is a fool for life. …. Everything has beauty, but not everyone sees it. ….
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 156 Before you embark on a journey of revenge, dig two graves. …. Real knowledge is to know the extent of one’s ignorance. …. Do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself. …. It is easy to hate and it is difficult to love. This is how the whole scheme of things works. All good things are difficult to achieve; and bad things are very easy to get. …. Respect yourself and others will respect you. …. Wheresoever you go, go with all your heart. …. If your plan is for one year plant rice. If your plan is for 10 years plant trees. If your plan is for 100 years educate children. …. The man who says he can, and the man who says he can’t are both correct. …. If you make a mistake and do not correct it, this is called a mistake. …. By three methods we may learn wisdom: First, by reflection, which is noblest; Second, by imitation, which is easiest; and third by experience, which is the bitterest. …. The man who moves a mountain begins by carrying away small stones. …. Life is really simple, but we insist on making it complicated. ….
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 157 In a country well-governed, poverty is something to be ashamed of. In a country badly governed, wealth is something to be ashamed of. …. It does not matter how slowly you go as long as you do not stop. …. He who knows all the answers has not been asked all the questions. …. Don’t complain about the snow on your neighbor’s roof when your own doorstep is unclean. …. The funniest people are the saddest ones. …. You cannot open a book without learning something. …. When it is obvious that the goals cannot be reached, don’t adjust the goals, adjust the action steps. …. Education breeds confidence. Confidence breeds hope. Hope breeds peace. …. The nobler sort of man emphasizes the good qualities in others, and does not accentuate the bad. The inferior does. ….
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Make the task below. a. Analyze the quotes/maxims of Confucius using the Moral-Philosophical Approach. (The space provided below is for comments and feedbacks.)
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a. Extract values of the text, Ramayana and Mahabharata b. Critique the text, Gana Rama” through the use of Historical and Biographical criticism
This chapter will help you know more about the literature in India, their best writers and significant literary pieces. It also features the famous writing, Ramayana and Mahabharata which brought impact to the lives of people in India and to the world.
Indian literature, writings of the Indian subcontinent, produced there in a variety of vernacular languages, including Sanskrit, Prakrit, Pali, Bengali, Bihari, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Malayalam, Oriya, Punjabi, Rajasthani, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu, Lahnda, Siraiki, and Sindhi, among others, as well as in English. The term Indian literature is used here to refer to literature produced across the Indian subcontinent prior to the creation of the Republic of India in 1947 and within the Republic of India after 1947. The earliest Indian literature took the form of the canonical Hindu sacred writings, known as the Veda, which were written in Sanskrit. To the Veda were added prose commentaries such as the Brahmanas and the Upanishads. The production of Sanskrit literature extended from about 1500 BCE to about 1000 CE and reached its height of development in the 1st to 7th
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 160 centuries . In addition to sacred and philosophical writings, such genres as erotic and devotional lyrics, court poetry, plays, and narrative folktales emerged. Because Sanskrit was identified with the Brahminical religion of the Vedas, Buddhism and Jainism adopted other literary languages (Pali and Ardhamagadhi, respectively). From these and other related languages emerged the modern languages of northern India. The literature of those languages depended largely on the ancient Indian background, which includes two Sanskrit epic poems, the Mahabharata and Ramayana, as well as the Bhagavatapurana and the other Puranas. In addition, the Sanskrit philosophies were the source of philosophical writing in the later literatures, and the Sanskrit schools of rhetoric were of great importance for the development of court poetry in many of the modern literatures. The South Indian language of Tamil is an exception to this pattern of Sanskrit influence because it had a classical tradition of its own. Urdu and Sindhi are other exceptions.
1. Chetan Bhagat Cited by The New York Times in 2008 as the biggest selling English language novelist in India’s history, Chetan Bhagat is author, screenwriter, columnist and TV personality. He is known for Comedy-drama novels about young urban middle-class Indians. Some of his famous work includes Five Point Someone, 2 States, Half Girlfriend and One Indian Girl.
2. Amrita Pritam Pritam indulged in poetry and literature at a very young age which influenced her to become a poet and novelist later in her life. She was a courageous woman who did not fear writing controversial texts during the prepartition era. She suffered through tough times during the partition of India which influenced her to write the Punjabi novel ‘Pinjar’ (skeleton) which describes the helplessness of the women during that era and the discrimination they had to go through. The novel later was made into a Bollywood movie which was a hit throughout the nation.
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3. Jhumpa Lahiri Laihiri is well known for her novels, essays and short stories. She was born in London but relocated to the United States to get her education from the Barnard College. She went ahead for her masters and attained her degree from the Boston University. She was a struggling writer and her work was initially rejected by the publishers until her biggest success, ‘The interpreter of Maladies’. This was a compilation of all her short stories about the life of immigrants in post-partition India. After the runaway success she wrote many other novels which are famous throughout the Indian continent and the world. Some of the most famous ones being; The namesake, Unaccustomed Earth and The lowland
4. Khushwant Singh He was a journalist, editor and novelist born in Hadli during the time of British India. He received his degree at St. Stephen’s College in New Delhi and King’s College in London. He initially started his career as a lawyer after which he got the opportunity to become the editor of important journals and magazines. As an author he wrote some outstanding novels like Train to Pakistan (1956), Delhi: A Novel (1990), The Company of Women (1999), Truth, Love and a Little Malice (2002), The Good, the Bad and the Ridiculous (2013).
5. R. K. Narayan He was born in Chennai and due to his father’s transfers had to move around therefore changed many schools. His interest in reading was evident since a very young age and his hobby soon became a habit. He later graduated and decided to become a stay at home writer. His initial books were not that popular until his third novel, ‘The dark room’. Narayan wrote many novels after this which were published and soon became a well renowned author during his time in India.
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5. Rabindranath Tagore Even though Tagore received his education in law he took great interest in Shakespeare and his literature. Therefore following his works he became a poet and author. His first poem ‘Mansai’ was published in 1890 after which he gained immense popularity amongst Bengali readers. His most significant works include ‘Gitanjali’ which was a collection of poems and ‘Galpaguchchha’ which are eighty short stories.
– Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi has always been a very prominent figure in Indian history. From his unbeatable spirit to inspiring courage, from various controversies to his life as the father of the nation, Gandhi has always been an interesting, inspiring and impressive personality to read about. If you want to know all about Gandhi and his journey, you cannot miss out on reading ‘My Experiments with the Truth’, his autobiography that covers his life from early childhood till 1921. The introduction mentions how Gandhi resumed writing at the insistence of a fellow prisoner at Yerwada Central jail. The autobiography was written as weekly journals and then compiled and published as a book. From his childhood memories, his experiments with eating meat, smoking, drinking and stealing to the demise of his father, the book captures many unknown instances of Gandhi’s life.
– R.K Narayan is best known for stories based in and around the fictional village of Malgudi. The Guide is yet another story set up in Malgudi. R.K. Narayan won the Sahitya Akademi Award for the book in 1960. The Guide is the story of a tour guide who transforms himself into a spiritual Guru and then the greatest holy man of India. The book was also adapted as a film which starred the legendary actor Dev Anand.
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– This is the second novel by Mistry published in 1995 and, like his first novel, Such A Long Journey, this novel too received wide acclaim across the globe. A fine balance revolves around various characters in Mumbai (then Bombay) during the time of turmoil and government emergencies. The story of friendship and love that progresses among the characters of the book will keep you hooked till the end.
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Midnight’s Children portrays the journey of India from British rule to independence and then partition. The book received a great response, winning the Booker Prize in 1981 and the “Booker of Bookers” Prize (commemorating the best among all the Booker winners) twice – in 1993 and 2008! The book travels to various parts of the country including Kashmir, Agra and Mumbai and incorporates many actual historic events. The book was also included in the List of 100 Best Novels of all time.
– This is a collection of nine stories by Lahiri. The stories are based on lives of Indians and Indian Americans who are lost between the two cultures. The book was published in 1999 and won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction and the Hemingway Foundation/PEN Award in the year 2000 and has sold over 15 million copies worldwide.
– The seers realised this. In their desire to carry knowledge to the people at large, they, therefore, composed the two great epics in later times. The two epics were The RAMAYANA and The MAHABHARATA. The epics were written during the later half of the second millennium and the first half of the first millennium before the Christian Era. Ramayana: Ramayana was the work of Valmiki. It contains 24 thousand slokas and is divided into ten parts. According to Valmiki himself, he wanted to carry the essence of the lessons of the Vedas to the common people by singing the virtuous deeds of Ramachandra. Ramayana describes the life of Rama, the eldest son of the king of Ayodhya, Dasaratha. When the old king Dasaratha wanted to place Rama, the crown prince, on throne, Rama decided to go to forest for fourteen years in order to fulfill his father’s promise to his second queen Kaikeyee to keep her request at right time and Kaikeyee demanded the banishment of Rama to forest so that her son Bharata could seat on the throne; death of king Dasaratha in extreme sorrow for Rama’s departure; Rama accompanied by his devoted wife Sita and
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younger brother Laxman went away to forest; a shocked Bharata went to bring Rama back, but on Rama’s refusal he brought his foot-wear to place on throne and to rule the country on behalf of his elder brother; departure of Rama from Chitrakuta to Dandakaranya and stay there in a hut at Panchavati forest; abduction of Sita by the demon king of Lanka, Ravana; constructing a bridge over sea, Rama’s invasion of Lanka; rescue of Sita after destruction of the demons; after fourteen years of exile, return of Rama, Sita and Laxman to Ayodhya; Rama’s paternal administration of his people; the suspicion expressed by a subject about the chastity of Sita while in Ravana’s custody; on report of the matter to Rama by a spy, Rama’s order to Laxman to abandon Sita in a forest even though she was pregnant; Sita’s stay in Valiniki’s Tapovan where her two sons Kusha and Lava were born; taught and trained by Valmiki-, the royal sons grew up as heroic boys; visit of Valmiki to Ayodhya with Kusha and Lava; Kusha and Lava’s melodious song of Valmiki’s Ramayana before the assembled gathering; on demands of all Sita’s return; in order to prove her purity before all, her prayer to mother earth to take her back and her disappearance when the earth split to absorb her; and at last, giving Koshala to Kusha and North Koshala to Lava to rule as kings ; Rama’s abandonment of his mortal body in the river Saraju. This is the substance of the great epic Ramayana. Valmiki described every episode of Rama’s life in great details. Side by side he added many instructive stories to give the epic a vast shape. The purpose was to keep mankind on a virtuous path. This epic has influenced and regulated the Indian way of life like a social and moral constitution. Ramayan depicts the values of truthfulness, morality and nobility as supreme ideals of life. It also reflects the spirit of that time, the spirit of the people, the nature of ideal monarchy, patriotism towards motherland and human relations in perfect form. For thousands of years, the people of India have derived inspirations from the lessons of the Ramayana to live a nobler and higher life. Mahabharata:
Great and glorious is the land of Bharata. To describe the deeds of the dynasty of Bharata that Vyasa wrote The Mahabharata. No where on earth is to be seen such a lengthy poetic-work as the Mahabharata. It contains one lakh ten thousand slokas. Vyasa’s Mahabharata begins with the story of the rule of the kings of the “Lunar Dynasty” at Hastinapur. A virtuous monarch of that dynasty named Santanu had a son named
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Bhishma, who was ever truthful and ever valorous. King Santanu had two other sons from his another queen named Satyabati. They were Bichitrabirya and Chitrangada. True to his vow Bhishma did not accept the throne after the death of his father and remained a bachelor for life. The kingdom, therefore, was ruled by Bichitrabirya. This king had two sons named Dhrutarastra and Pandu. Since the elder Dhrutarastra was blind from his birth, his younger brother Pandu ascended the throne after the death of his father. Pandu had five sons named as Yudhisthir, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula and Sahadev. They were known as the Pandavas. On the other hand, the hundred sons of Dhrutarastra were known as the Kauravas as the descendants of the former king of the dynasty named Kuru. Duryodhan was the first among the sons of Dhrutarastra. After the death of king Pandu his five sons were given one portion of the kingdom to rule. Inside a forest called Khandava, the Pandava brothers built their capital and named it as Indraprastha. This caused envy in the mind of the Kaurava brothers. They therefore invited the Pandava brothers to play the game of Dice with them with bet over victory or defeat. Playing with trick, the Kauravas defeated the Pandava king Yudhisthira again and again. According to the bet the defeated brothers agreed to live the life of exiles in forests for twelve years, and thereafter to spend one more year in disguise to escape detection. At the end of their ordeal for thirteen years the Pandava brothers returned and asked the Kauravas their kingdom. But the Kaurava king Duryodhan refused to give back their territory saying that he would not give even a particle of earth without battle. Because of this injustice a fierce battle was fought between the Pandavas and Kauravas in the field of Kurukshetra. Many kings of India joined either the Kauravas or the Pandavas to take part in the war. The field of Kurukshetra was also described as the Dharmakshetra because it saw the eternal conflict between virtue and vice, righteousness and wrong-doing, between the just and the unjust. At the end of the battle it was seen that all the Kaurava brothers were dead along with most of their supporters. The Pandava side also lost many relations, including Abhimanyu, the son of Arjuna, the greatest warrior of the battle. Winning victory in Kurukshetra battle, the Pandavas got the whole kingdom and Yudhisthira became king. But, in deep repentance over the death of his kith and kin and in order to do penance, Yudhisthira left the throne in the hands of Parikshita, the son of dead Abhimanyu, and left for the Himalayas with his four brothers and wife.
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With this central theme Vyasa added many legends, traditions, Puranic episodes, accounts of other royal dynasties, as well as descriptions of prevailing socio-religious systems, customs and manners, moral values, political conditions, traditions of war and diplomacy, and faiths and beliefs of the people. The Mahabharata described the virtues of vigour for worldly existence as well as of the higher ideals of the life like truthfulness and righteousness. At several places Vyasa included deeper philosophies and spiritual thoughts to create awareness about man’s divine existence.
Jana Gana Mana By Rabindranath Tagore
You rule the minds of all people and control India’s future. Your name brings joy to Punjab, Sind, Gujarat and Maratha; and Dravida and Orissa and Bengal. (regions in India) It echoes in the Vindhya and Himalayan hills, and mixes with the music of the Yamuna and Ganga rivers. It is also sung by waves of the sea. We pray for your blessings and sing your praise. We look forward to your best wishes. And we wish Victory, victory, victory for you.
E
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 167
Answer the following questions below: 1. What picture in general sense does Ramayana tries to extract to the people in India? How would you apply the values of the text in your life? _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 168 Answer the following questions below: 2. What picture in general sense does Mahabharata tries to extract to the people in India? How would you apply the values of the text in your life? _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 169
Make the task below.
a. Use the Historical and Biographical Criticism upon analyzing the text, Jana Gana Mana.
(The space provided below is for comments and feedbacks.)
S u r v e y o f A f r o - A s i a n L i t e r a t u r e | 170
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